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AC  8  TUB  1848  v. 8 
Dick,  Thomas,  1774-1857. 

The  complete  works  of  Thomas 
Dick 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive  . 
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W  If  HIP  ©HUM  H ID) H IF E (S) If o 


THE 

SIDEREAL  HEAVENS, 

AND 


OTHER  SUBJECTS  CONNECTED  WITH 

ASTRONOMY, 


AS  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  DEITY 
AND  OF  AN  INFINITY  OF  WORLDS. 

‘The  worlds  were  framed  by  the  word  of  God.” — Paul. 


/ 

BY 

THOMAS  DICK,  LL.D. 


AUTHOR  OF 

**  CELESTIAL  SCENERY,”  (e  THE  CHRISTIAN  PHILOSOPHER,” 

ETC.,  ETC. 


VOL.  VIII. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

E.  C.  &  J.  BIDDLE,  6  SOUTH  FIFTH  STREET 


Printed  by  T.  K.  &  P.  G.  Collins. 


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The  favourable  reception  which  the  volume  entitled  (C  Celes¬ 
tial  Scenery”  has  met  with  from  the  public,  both  in  Britain  and 
America,  has  induced  the  Author  to  extend  his  survey  to  otner 
sublime  scenes  connected  with  the  science  of  astronomy.  The 
chief  object  of  the  work  alluded  to  was  to  illustrate,  more  fully 
than  had  previously  been  attempted,  the  scenes  connected  with 
the  planetary  system.  In  the  present  volume,  the  Author  has 
directed  the  attention  of  his  readers  to  scenery  ot  a  still  more 
elevated  and  sublime  description,  connected  with  the  Sidereal 
Heavens.”  All  the  facts  related  to  this  subject,  which  can  be 
considered  as  interesting  to  general  readers,  have  been  particularly 
detailed,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  generally  comprehensible 
by  those  who  have  little  knowledge  of  mathematical  science,  or 
the  more  abstruse  parts  of  astronomy. 

In  describing  such  sublime  scenes  as  are  here  unfolded,  the 
Author,  as  on  former  occasions,  has  freely  indulged  in  such 
remarks  and  moral  reflections  as  were  naturally  suggested  by  the 
grandeur  of  his  subject;  and  has  endeavoured  to  lead  the  minds 
of  his  readers  to  the  contemplation  of  the  attributes  and  the  agency 
of  that  Almighty  Being,  by  whom  the  vast  system  of  universal 
nature  was  at  first  brought  into  existence,  and  by  whose  superin¬ 
tending  care  it  is  incessantly  conducted  in  all  its  movements. 

The  subject  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  has  been  resumed,  and 
additional  arguments,  both  from  reason  and  revelation,  have  been 
brought  forward  so  as  to  exhibit  this  position,  not  merely  as  con 
jectural  or  highly  probable,  but  as  susceptible  of  moral  demon 
stration.  For  the  gratification  of  amateur  observers  possessed  of 
telescopes,  particular  descriptions  have  been  given  of  the  positions 
of  some  of  the  more  remarkable  phenomena  in  the  sidereal  hea- 

iii 


»■> 


iv 


PREFACE. 


vens,  that  they  may  be  induced  to  contemplate  them  with  their 
own  eyes.  For  a  similar  reason  the  Author  has  described  the 
various  aspects  of  the  heavens  throughout  the  year,  and  the  posi¬ 
tion  of  the  planets  for  1840  and  1841.  As  the  subject  of  comets 
was  unavoidably  omitted  in  the  preceding  volume,  the  author  has 
condensed,  in  the  concluding  chapter,  the  greater  part  of  the  facts 
which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  the  nature,  phenomena, 
and  influence  of  those  anomalous  bodies. 

It  was  originally  intended,  had  the  limits  of  the  present  volume 
permitted,  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  student  to  other  subjects 
related  to  the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  and  to  the  construction  and 
application  of  some  of  those  instruments  which  are  devoted  to 
celestial  observations.  Should  the  work  now  published  meet  with 
a  favourable  reception,  the  Author  intends — in  a  smaller  volume 
than  the  present — to  elucidate  some  of  the  subjects  to  which  he 
alludes,  especially  the  following: — the  construction  and  use  of 
optical  instruments,  particularly  the  reflecting  and  achromatic 
elescope,  and  the  equatorial.  As  the  Author  has  performed  a 
great  variety  of  experiments  in  relation  to  such  instruments,  he 
nopes  to  have  it  in  his  power  to  suggest  some  new  and  useful 
hints  in  reference  to  their  construction  and  improvement.  The 
doctrine  of  eclipses  and  occultations,  the  precession  of  the  equi 
noxes,  &c. — the  construction  of  observatories,  and  the  manner  of 
using  astronomical  instruments, — the  desiderata  in  astronomy, 
and  the  means  by  which  the  progress  of  the  science  may  be  pro¬ 
moted, — the  practical  utility,  physical  and  moral,  of  astronomical 
studies, — their  connexion  with  religion,  and  the  views  they  unfold 
of  the  attributes  and  the  empire  of  the  Creator,  with  several  other 
correlative  topics,  will  likewise  be  the  subject  of  consideration. 
The  whole  to  be  illustrated  with  appropriate  engravings,  piany 
of  which  will  be  original. 


Broughty  Ferry,  near  Dundee, 
January  24,  1840. 


CONTENTS 


Introduction. — Imperfect  knowledge  of  the  Sidereal  Heavens-  Disco¬ 
veries  by  the  telescope — Herschel’s  observations — Sidereal  Science  in 
its  infancy — Boundless  nature  of  the  subject,  -  -  -  pp.  9 — 12 

CHAP.  I. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS,  WITH  REPRESENTA¬ 
TIONS  OF  DETACHED  PORTIONS  OF  THE  FIRMAMENT. 

Splendid  and  august  appearance  of  the  heavens — Sentiments  and  emo¬ 
tions  they  produce — Inquiries  suggested  by  a  contemplation  of  the 
wonders  they  unfold — Appearance  of  the  stars  and  constellations  about 
the  middle  of  January — Delineation  of  certain  stars  and  constellations 
at  that  time  visible — Representations  of  certain  portions  of  the  heavens 
in  the  beginning  of  September — View  and  description  of  the  circumpolar 
stars — General  remarks  in  reference  to  these  stars,  -  -  13 — 27 

CHAP.  II. 

OF  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  STARS  INTO  CONSTELLATIONS, 
WITH  SKETCHES  OF  THEIR  MYTHOLOGICAL  HISTORY. 

Invention  of  the  Zodiac — Mode  in  which  it  was  divided  by  the  ancients- — 
Origin  of  the  names  by  which  its  signs  are  distinguished — List  of  the 
constellations,  with  the  number  of  stars  in  each — Arrangement  of  the 
stars  into  different  magnitudes — Catalogues  of  the  stars — Origin  of  the 
celestial  hieroglyphics — Greek  alphabet,  ....  28 — 39 

CHAr.  III. 

ON  THE  PROPRIETY  OF  ADOPTING  A  MORE  NATURAL  ARRANGE- 
.  MENT  AND  DELINEATION  OF  THE  STARRY  GROUPS. 

Introductory  remarks — Reasons  why  the  present  nomenclature  and  ar¬ 
rangement  of  the  stars  should  be  changed — Principles  on  which  a  new 
arrangement  should  be  formed — Improvements  which  might,  be  adopted 
in  the  mean  time  in  celestial  globes  and  planispheres — Delineation  of 
Orion — Sir  J.  Herschel’s  opinion — British  Association,  -  40 — 48 

CHAP.  IV. 

ON  THE  DISTANCES  OF  THE  STARS. 

Measures  of  distance — Annual  parallax — Mode  of  investigating  it — Galileo, 
Hook,  and  Flamstead’s  methods — Molyneux’s  and  Bradley’s  observa¬ 
tions — Aberration — Supposed  distance  of  the  nearest  star — Herschel’s 
investigations — Professor  Bessel’s  determination  of  the  parallax  of  61 
Cygni — Amazing  distance  of  this  star — Reflections  on  the  immense 
spaces  of  the  universe  —  Scriptural  representations  of  the  Deity  — 
Whether  man  may  ever  traverse  distant  regions,  -  -  49 — 66 

CHAP.  V. 

ON  THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  STARS. 

Difficulty  of  ascertaining  the  real  and  apparent  magnitude  ol  the  stars — 
Supposed  magnitude  of  some  stars — Certainty  that  their  real  magnitudes 
are  very  great — Popular  illustration  of  the  distances  and  magnitudes  of 
the  stars,  . 67 — 73 


V 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  VI. 

ON  NEW  STARS. 

New  star  discovered  by  Hipparchus — Particular  description  of  the  new 
star  which  appeared  in  1572 — Delineation  of  its  position — Description 
of  the  new  star  of  1604,  and  of  several  others — Mysterious  nature  of 
these  bodies— Opinions  -which  have  been  formed  respecting  them — 
Futility  of  some  of  these  opinions — Such  bodies  not  annihilated — Pro¬ 
bable  cause  of  such  phenomena — Concluding  reflections,  -  74 — 86 

CHAP.  VII. 

ON  VARIABLE  STARS. 

Descriptions  of  the  periods  and  phenomena  of  some  of  these  bodies,  Stella 
Mira,  Algol,  Eta  Antinoi,  &c. — Conjectures  respecting  their  nature — 
Probable  causes  of  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars,  illustrated  by 
figures — Stars  which  are  lost — Stars  which  have  changed  their  magni¬ 
tudes — Stars  which  have  recently  become  visible — New  creations — 
Omnipotent  energies — Scenes  of  grandeur  in  the  heavens,  -  87 — 99 

CHAP.  VIII. 

ON  DOUBLE  STARS  AND  BINARY  SYSTEMS. 

Variety  a  characteristic  of  the  works  of  the  Deity — Double  stars  observed 
by  Herschel  and  others — Their  number — Their  motions — Herschel’s 
observations  on  the  motion  of  the  double  star  Castor — Period  of  revo¬ 
lution  illustrated  by  a  diagram — Periods  of  revolution  of  several  double 
stars — Occupation  of  one  star  by  another — Orbits  of  double  stars — 
Telescopic  views  of1 — Scenes  exhibited  by  the  revolutions  of  double 
stars — Distances  of  binary  systems — Planets  connected  with  them— 
Velocity  of  motions — Number  of  such  systems — Contrasted  colours  of 
double  stars — Effects  produced  on  planets  by  coloured  suns — Repre¬ 
sentation  of  a  binary  system — proposed  method  of  determining  the  dis¬ 
tances  of  double  stars — General  remarks  on  this  method,  &c.,  100 — 122 

CHAP.  IX. 

ON  TREBLE,  QUADRUPLE,  AND  MULTIPLE  STARS. 

General  remarks — Treble  star  in  Cancer — Delineation  of  treble  and 
quadruple  systems — Quadruple  star  in  Lyra — 'Oscillating  suns — Pro¬ 
blem  of  three  bodies — Reflections  on  multiple  systems — List  and  po¬ 
sitions  of  treble  and  multiple  stars,  ....  123 — 132 

CHAP.  X. 

ON  THE  MILKY  WAY. 

Grandeur  of  the  sidereal  heavens — Position  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  the 
constellations  through  which  it  passes — Multitude  of  stars  it  contains — 
Sir  W.  Herschel’s  observations  on  this  zone — Estimate  of  the  number 
of  stars  it  may  contain — 'Number  of  visible  stars  in  the  heavens — Dis¬ 
tances  of  some  of  the  stars  in  this  zone — Reflections  on  the  scene  exhi¬ 
bited  by  the  Milky  Way — Position  of  our  sun  in  this  zone — Delinea¬ 
tions  of  the  form  of  the  Milky  Way — Schroeter’s  observations— 
Herschel’s  remarks  on  its  structure — Its  appearance  in  the  southern 
hemisphere, . 133 — 146 

CHAP.  XI. 

ON  GROUPS  AND  CLUSTERS  OF  STARS. 

Hie  pleiades,  telescopic  view  of  (s ee  Appendix) — Hook  and  Michell’s 
remarks  on  this  cluster1 — Coma  Berenices — Prcesepe — Telescopic  view 
of — Perseus — Delineation  of  a  group  in  Orion’s  sword — 'Such  groups 
form  interesting  objects  of  contemplation — immensity  of  the  universe— 
Views  and  descriptions  of  stars — Variety  of  firmaments,  -  147 — 156 


CONTENTS. 


Vll 


CHAP.  XII. 

ON  THE  DIFFERENT  ORDERS  OF  THE  NEBULA. 

Section  1.  General  remarks  on  the  subject  of  Nebula \ — Boundless  extent 
of  the  universe — Sir  W.  Herschel’s  remarks  on  this  subject — Lambert’s 
views  of  the  universe — Number  of  discovered  nebulae — Size,  grandeur, 
and  different  forms  of  the  nebulae, . 157 

Section  2.  On  the  various  kinds  of  Nebula.- — Clusters  of  stars — Resolv¬ 
able  nebulae — Irresolvable  nebulae — Views  and  descriptions  of  various 
kinds  of  nebulae — Globular,  elliptical,  annular,  spheroidal — 'Nebulous 
stars — Diffusive  nebulosities — Nebulosities  joined  to  nebulae,  &c.  164 

Section  3.  On  planetary  Nebula. — General  description — Enormous  mag¬ 
nitude  of  such  bodies — Positions  of  some  of  these  nebulae,  -  176 

Section  4.  On  the  Nebula  in  Orion. — Its  position — Huygen’s  description 
of  it — Delineations  of  this  nebula — Herschel’s  descriptions  and  re¬ 
marks — The  author’s  observations — Its  immense  magnitude — Reflec¬ 
tions  and  remarks,  ---------  179 

Section  5.  On  the  Nebular  hypothesis. — Inquiries  and  conjectures  sug¬ 
gested  by  the  nebulae — Premature  conclusions  which  have  been  deduced 
— Remarks  and  reflections  in  relation  to  the  subject  of  nebulae,  185 

Section  6.  Catalogue  of  some  of  the  larger  Nebulce,  -  -  189  195 

CHAP.  XIII. 

ON  THE  ABERRATION  OF  THE  STARS;  AND  ON  THEIR.  PROPER 

MOTIONS. 

Bradley  and  Molyneux’s  observations — Aberration  of  light  explained  and 
illustrated — Sir  J.  Herschel’s  explanation — Other  illustrations — Conclu¬ 
sions  deduced  from  the  aberration  of  the  stars — Proper  motions  of  the 
stars  when  first  observed — Specimens  of  their  annual  motions — Velocity 
with  which  they  move, .  196 — 204 

CHAP.  XIV. 

ON  THE  DESTINATION  OF  THE  STARS;  OR;  THE  DESIGNS  THEY  ARE 
INTENDED  TO  SUBSERVE  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Utility  of  the  stars  to  our  globe — 'This  not  the  chief  design  of  their  crea¬ 
tion — Are  suns  to  other  worlds — Arguments  which  prove  this  position — - 
Constitute  the  chief  part  of  the  universe — Direct  indications  of  their  being 
the  centres  of  systems — Immense  extent  of  the  Divine  empire,  205 — 213 

CHAP.  XV. 

ON  UNKNOWN  CELESTIAL  BODIES - ON  METEORIC  PHENOMENA - 

AND  ON  SHOOTING  STAR.S. 

Probable  existence  of  large  opaque  globes  throughout  space — Central 
bodies — Lambert’s  views  on  this  subject — Meteoric  phenomena — No¬ 
vember  meteors — Various  descriptions  of  their  phenomena,  illustrated 
by  a  figure — Seen  in  different  parts  of  the  world — Circumstances  attend¬ 
ing  their  fall — -Their  appearance  in  France — Dr.  Olmsted’s  deductions 
respecting  their  origin,  illustrated  by  a  diagram — Arago’s  opinion — 
General  reflections, . 214 — 229 

CHAP.  XVI. 

ARGUMENTS  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  A  PLURALITY 

OF  WORLDS. 

This  doctrine  accordant  with  the  infinity ,  the  eternity ,  the  wisdom. ,  and 
the  benevolence  of  the  Divine  Mind— -Exhibits  a  magnificent  idea  of 
Deity — Tower  always  accompanied  with  wisdom  and  goodness — Ab¬ 
surdities  involved  in  the  opposite  opinion — 'Harmony  of  the  Divine  Per¬ 
fections — Summary  of  arguments,  -----  230 — 246 


via 


CONTENTS. 


CHAP.  XVII. 

A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED  FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 

Introductory  remarks — Psalm  viii.  3,  4 — 'Isaiah,  xl.  15,  17 — Nehemiah, 
ix.  6,  &c. — Such  passages  explained  and  illustrated,  -  247 — 261 

CHAP.  XVIII. 

ON  THE  PHYSICAL  AND  MORAL  STATE  OF  THE  BEINGS  THAT  MAY 

INHABIT  OTHER  WORLDS. 

They  are  sentient  beings — Endowed  with  intellectual  faculties — Furnished 
with  bodies — With  organs  of  vision — Locomotive  powers — Various 
other  circumstances  connected  with  their  existence — Make  progressive 
improvement  in  knowledge — Intercourses  among  them — Spiritual  econ¬ 
omy — Moral  state  of  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds — Happiness  de¬ 
pendent  on  moral  principle  and  action — Moral  order — Moral  laws 
which  govern  all  pure  intelligences,  ....  262 — 280 

CHAP.  XIX. 

A  SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Mental  process  by  which  we  obtain  an  approximate  idea  of  creation — • 
Magnitude  of  the  earth — Planetary  system — Stars  visible  to  the  naked 
eye — Milky  Way — 'Nebulae,  their  extent  and  grandeur — Immensity  of 
creation — Astonishing  motions  in  the  universe — Mode  by  wrhich  we  may 
acquire  the  most  comprehensive  idea  of  it — Creation  a  proof  of  the 
Divine  Existence — Attributes  of  Deity — 'Dependence  of  all  beings  upon 
God — Christian  Revelation,  -  ...  281 — 298 

CHAP.  XX. 

ON  COMETS. 

Description  of  the  parts  of  a  comet — Opinions  of  Aristotle,  Tycho,  &c. — 
History  of  remarkable  comets — Comets  of  1680,  1682,  1744,  1770 — 
Encke’s  comet — Biela’s  and  Gambart’s — Alarms  occasioned  by  comets 
— Comet  of  1807 — Schroeter’s  and  Herschel’s  observations  on — Views 
of  this  comet — Comet  of  1811 — Schroeter’s  observations  and  deductions 
respecting  its  phenomena — 'Destruction  of  his  observatory — Re-appear¬ 
ance  of  Halley’s  comet  in  1835 — Observations  on,  by  the  Author,  Rev. 
Mr.  Webb,  and  others — Mrs.  Somerville’s  remarks — Physical  consti¬ 
tution  of  comets — Opinions  respecting  their  nuclei  and  tails — Miscella¬ 
neous  remarks  on  comets' — Their  light,  phases,  and  nebulosity — Whether 
they  may  come  in  contact  with  the  earth — Whether  they  have  ever 
fallen  into  the  sun — On  the  influence  of  comets  on  the  earth — Opinions 
prevalent  in  former  times — Mr.  Forster’s  hypothesis — Comets  may  have 
an  influence  on  our  globe — 'Its  nature  not  yet  determined— -Whether 
the  direction  of  the  earth’s  axis  has  been  altered  by  a  comet — Whether 
the  new  planets  were  disrupted  by  the  shock  of  a  comet,  & c. —  On  the 
orbits  of  comets — 'Their  form — How  determined — Motions  and  periods  of 
— Number  of — Direct  and  retrograde  motions,  inclination  of  orbits,  &c. — 
Inhabit  ability  of  comets ■ — 'Size  and  splendour  of  certain  comets — Account 


of  Mr.  Webb’s  MS.  Treatise  on  Comets,  ...  299 — 346 

APPENDIX. 

Page. 

Aspect  of  the  sidereal  heavens  for  every  alternate  month  of  the  year,  with 

remarks,  -  347—360 

Phenomena  and  positions  of  the  planets  for  1840,  -  361 

Ditto,  ______  1841,  -  368 

Eclipses  and  occupations,  -  1840,  -  376 

Ditto,  _  1841,  -  ib. 

Occupations  of  Venus,  -  -  -  -  1841,  _  377 

Explanations  of  some  of  the  engravings  of  the  stars  and  comets,  -  378—382 


THE 


SIDEREAL  HEAVENS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  a  work  lately  published  under  the  title  of  “Celestial 
Scenery,”  I  endeavoured  to  exhibit  a  pretty  full  display  of 
all  the  prominent  facts  connected  with  the  motions,  distances, 
magnitudes,  and  other  phenomena  of  the  planets,  both  primary 
and  secondary,  and  of  the  observations  and  reasonings  by 
which  they  are  supported.  These  bodies  forming  a  part  of 
the  solar  system  to  which  we  belong,  and  lying  within  the 
limits  of  measurable  distance,  can  be  more  distinctly  surveyed, 
and  their  magnitudes  and  other  phenomena  more  accurately 
investigated,  than  those  of  the  remoter  orbs  of  the  firmament 
Hence,  in  consequence  of  the  accurate  observations  of  mo¬ 
dern  times,  we  can  now  speak  with  a  degree  of  certainty  and 
precision  respecting  their  order  and  arrangement,  their  pe¬ 
riodical  revolutions,  their  distances  from  the  sphere  we  occupy 
and  from  the  centre  of  the  system,  their  real  bulk,  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  their  surfaces,  and  the  objects  which  diversify  their 
respective  firmaments.  But  when  we  pass  the  boundary  of 
the  planetary  system,  and  attempt  to  explore  the  orbs  which 
lie  beyond  it,  we  have  to  travel,  as  it  were,  through  dark  and 
pathless  regions,  we  have  to  traverse  an  immense  interval 
which  has  hitherto  baffled  all  the  efforts  of  human  science  and 
ingenuity  to  determine  its  extent.  The  fixed  stars  lie  com¬ 
pletely  beyond  the  dominions  of  the  sun ;  they  feel  not  his 
attractive  influence,  they  revolve  not  around  him  as  a  centre, 
nor  are  they  enlightened  by  his  effulgence.  It  follows  that 
our  knowledge  of  those  remote  luminaries  must  be  extremely 
imperfect,  and  our  views  of  the  distant  regions  in  which  they 
are  placed  comparatively  limited  and  obscure. 

But  notwithstanding  the  immeasurable  distance  of  the 

9 


10 


INTRODUCTION. 


starry  regions,  and  the  limited  nature  of  human  vision,  we 
are  not  altogether  ignorant  of  those  remote  and  unexplored 
dominions  of  Omnipotence,  or  of  the  magnitude  and  splen¬ 
dour  of  the  bodies  they  contain.  The  telescope  has  enabled 
us  to  penetrate  the  vast  spaces  of  the  universe,  and  has 
opened  a  vista  through  which  thousands  of  suns  and  systems 
are  distinctly  beheld,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  for 
ever  veiled  from  the  view  of  mortals.  It  has  extended  the 
boundaries  of  our  vision  thousands  of  times  beyond  its  natural 
limits,  and  collected  the  scattered  rays  of  light  from  numer¬ 
ous  distant  orbs,  which,  without  its  assistance,  would  never 
have  entered  our  eyes.  It  has  served  the  purpose  of  a  ce¬ 
lestial  vehicle  to  carry  us  towards  the  heavens,  and  has  pro¬ 
duced  the  same  effect  on  our  visual  powers  as  if  we  had  been 
actually  transported  thousands  of  millions  of  miles  nearer  the 
unexplored  territories  of  creation.  Guided  by  this  noble  in¬ 
strument,  scenes  and  objects  have  been  disclosed  to  view  of 
which  former  generations  could  form  no  conception,  and  which 
lead  the  reflecting  mind  to  the  most  elevated  views  of  the  per¬ 
fections  of  the  Deity,  and  to  the  most  expansive  prospects  of 
the  grandeur  and  magnificence  of  his  empire. 

For  a  considerable  period  after  the  true  system  of  the  world 
was  recognised,  astronomers  were  disposed  to  consider  the 
stars  as  so  many  insulated  luminaries,  scattered  almost  at  ran¬ 
dom  throughout  the  vast  spaces  of  the  universe.  Having  en¬ 
gaged  in  no  very  extensive  surveys  of  the  celestial  vault,  and 
resting  contented  with  the  idea  that  the  stars  were  so  many 
suns,  dispersed  in  a  kind  of  magnificent  confusion  through  the 
immensity  of  space,  they  seemed  to  have  formed  no  concep¬ 
tion  of  any  specific  difference  in  the  nature  of  these  bodies,  or 
of  any  systematic  arrangement  as  existing  among  them. 
Hence  it  happened  that  no  discoveries  of  importance  were 
made  in  the  region  of  the  stars,  from  the  time  of  Huygens 
and  Cassini  till  near  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century ; 
so  that  a  whole  century  elapsed  without  materially  enlarging 
our  views  of  the  sidereal  heavens,  and  of  the  variety,  order, 
and  arrangement  of  the  numerous  bodies  which  every  portion 
of  those  expansive  regions  presents  to  view.  During  the  last 
sixty  or  seventy  years,  the  attention  of  astronomers  has  been 
more  particularly  directed  to  sidereal  observations  ;  and  among 
those  who  have  laboured  with  success  in  this  department  of 
astronomical  investigation,  the  late  Sir  William  Herschel  stands 
pre-eminent.  Fired  with  a  noble  zeal  for  the  improvement  of 
his  favourite  science,  and  for  the  enlargement  of  his  views  of 
the  distant  regions  of  creation,  he  set  to  work  with  enthusi- 


INTRODUCTION. 


11 


astic  ardour,  and  constructed  with  his  own  hands  telescopes 
of  a  size  and  magnifying  power  far  superior  to  what  had  ever 
before  been  attempted.  Mounted  on  the  top  of  his  forty-feet 
reflecting  telescope,  he  not  only  discovered  new  bodies  within 
the  limits  of  the  planetary  system,  but  brought  to  light  innu¬ 
merable  phenomena  in  regions  of  the  firmament  where  the  eye 
of  man  had  never  before  dared  to  penetrate.  He  explored  the 
Milky-way  throughout  all  its  profundities,  and  found  that 
whitish  zone  of  the  heavens  to  consist  of  a  multitude  of  stars 
u  which  no  man  could  number,”  fifty  thousand  of  them  having 
sometimes  passed  through  the  field  of  his  telescope  in  the 
space  of  an  hour.  During  the  coldness  and  profound  silence 
of  many  sleepless  nights,  he  surveyed  almost  every  portion  of 
the  celestial  concave,  and  discovered  more  than  two  thousand 
nelulce ,  or  starry  systems,  of  various  forms  and  descriptions, 
along  with  multitudes  of  double,  triple,  and  quadruple  stars 
which  had  formerly  been  unknown,  and  ascertained,  from  the 
change  of  their  relative  positions,  some  of  their  real  motions 
and  periods  of  revolution.  After  more  than  half  a  century 
spent  in  unwearied  observations  of  the  heavens,  this  illustri¬ 
ous  astronomer  departed  from  this  earthly  scene,  in  1822, 
without  infirmities  and  without  pain,  in  the  eighty-fourth  year 
of  his  age,  leaving  a  son  to  prosecute  his  labours  endued  with 
virtues  and  talents  worthy  of  his  father,  and  whose  observa¬ 
tions  and  researches  have  already  enriched  the  science  of  as¬ 
tronomy,  and  extended  our  views  of  the  sidereal  system. 

This  department  of  astronomical  science  may  be  considere-d 
as  still  in  its  infancy.  Years,  and  even  centuries,  must  roll 
on,  and  the  number  of  astronomical  observers  must  be  in¬ 
creased  a  hundredfold,  before  the  sidereal  investigations  now 
going  forward  can  be  nearly  completed.  A  more  extensive 
knowledge  of  the  history  of  the  heavens,  of  the  bodies  which 
lie  hid  in  the  yet  unexplored  regions  of  space,  and  of  the 
changes  and  diversified  motions  to  which  they  are  subject,  is 
doubtless  reserved  for  generations  to  come  ;  and  from  the  at¬ 
tention  which  has  lately  been  paid  to  this  subject,  and  the 
ardour  with  which  it  is  now  prosecuted  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  we  have  reason  to  expect  that  new  scenes  of  divine 
wisdom  and  omnipotence  will  be  gradually  unfolding,  and 
new  and  interesting  results  deduced  from  the  nocturnal  labours 
of  those  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  celestial  investiga¬ 
tions.  To  what  extent  our  knowledge  of  the  objects  of  this 
science  may  yet  reach,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  anticipate. 
The  objects  in  the  heavens  present  a  scene  which  is  abso¬ 
lutely  boundless, — which  all  the  generations  of  men  that  may 


o 


INTRODUCTION. 


arise  till  the  termination  of  our  terrestrial  system  will  never  be 
able  fully  to  explore;  a  scene  which  will  doubtless  engage 
the  study  and  contemplation  of  numerous  orders  of  intellectual 
beings  throughout  all  the  revolutions  of  eternity. 

In  the  following  work,  I  propose  to  give  only  a  very  con¬ 
densed  view  of  the  leading  objects  which  have  been  lately 
discovered  in  the  sidereal  heavens.  The  facts  in  relation  tc 
this  subject  will  be  selected  chiefly  from  the  observations  of 
Sir  W.  Herschel,  and  several  other  astronomers,  and  some  of 
them  from  personal  observation.  Most  of  the  facts  to  which 
I  allude  were  ascertained  by  Sir  W.  Herschel  by  means  of 
telescopes  of  great  size  and  power,  and  a  considerable  num¬ 
ber  of  the  double  and  triple  stars,  stellar  and  planetary 
nebulse,  and  other  phenomena,  cannot  be  perceived  with 
instruments  of  an  ordinary  size.  Certain  interesting  facts, 
too,  particularly  with  regard  to  the  motions  of  double  stars, 
have  lately  been  brought  to  light  by  the  observations  of  Sir 
John  Herschel,  made  in  the  southern  hemisphere ;  but  the 
bodies  to  which  I  allude  cannot  be  seen  in  the  northern  lati¬ 
tudes  in  which  we  reside.  A  considerable  portion  therefore  of 
our  information  on  this  subject  must  necessarily  depend  on 
the  observations  of  the  astronomers  to  whom  I  allude,  and 
the  statements  they  have  published  to  the  world ;  but  these 
observations  have,  for  the  most  part,  been  abundantly  verified 
by  other  observers. 

It  shall  be  our  endeavour  to  state  the  prominent  facts  con¬ 
nected  with  the  sidereal  heavens  in  as  plain  and  perspicuous  a 
manner  as  possible  ;  and  while  it  forms  no  part  of  our  plan 
to  frame  hypotheses,  or  launch  out  into  theoretical  disquisi¬ 
tions,  we  shall  offer  those  remarks,  and  freely  indulge  in  those 
moral  reflections,  which  the  contemplation  of  such  august 
objects  are  calculated  to  suggest.  The  scenes  we  intend  to 
exhibit  are  not  only  the  workmanship  of  God,  but  display  the 
glory  of  his  attributes  and  the  magnificence  of  his  empire  in 
a  degree,  and  upon  a  scale,  far  surpassing  what  can  be  seen  in 
any  other  department  of  creation :  and  therefore,  in  all  our 
surveys  of  those  grand  and  multifarious  objects,  we  ought 
invariably  to  connect  our  views  and  investigations  with  the 
supreme  agency  of  Him  who  brought  them  into  existence,  and 
to  cherish  those  sentiments  and  emotions  which  may  inspire 
us  with  reverence  and  adoration  of  that  glorious  and  incom¬ 
prehensible  Being  u  by  whom  the  worlds  were  framed,”  u  who 
created  all  things,  and  for  whose  pleasure  they  are  and  were 
created.” 


GENERAL  VIEWS  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS.  13 


CHAPTER  I. 

A  GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS,  WITH  REPRE¬ 
SENTATIONS  OF  DETACHED  PORTIONS  OF  THE  FIRMAMENT. 

If  we  could  suppose  a  community  of  a  rational  beings  to 
have  lived  for  ages  in  some  subterraneous  grottoes  far  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  never  to  have  visited  the  ex¬ 
terior  portions  of  our  globe,  their  ideas  must  have  been 
extremely  circumscribed,  and  their  enjoyments  extremely 
imperfect,  even  although  they  had  been  furnished  with  every 
thing  requisite  for  their  animal  subsistence.  Could  we  imagine 
that  such  beings  were  all  at  once  transported  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  with  what  astonishment  and  wonder  would  they 
be  seized  when  they  beheld  the  expansive  landscape  of  the 
world,  the  lofty  mountains  towering  to  the  clouds, — the  hills 
crowned  with  magnificent  forests, — the  plains  stretching  to 
the  boundaries  of  the  horizon,  and  adorned  with  colours  of 
every  shade, — the  expansive  lake,  like  a  magnificent  mirror, 
embosomed  among  the  hills, — the  rivers  rolling  their  watery 
treasures  towards  the  ocean, — and  the  sun  in  the  firmament 
revolving  around  the  circuit  of  the  sky,  diffusing  his  light  and 
heat  on  every  surrounding  object!  Above  all,  with  what 
emotions  of  admiration  would  they  be  filled  when  they  beheld 
the  solar  globe  descending  below  the  western  horizon,  and 
soon  after  the  moon  displaying  her  silver  crescent  in  the  sky, 
and  the  stars,  one  after  another,  emerging  from  the  blue 
ethereal,  till  the  whole  celestial  concave  appeared  all  over 
spangled  with  a  thousand  shining  orbs,  emitting  their  radiance 
from  every  part  of  the  cope  of  heaven,  and  all  moving,  with 
an  apparently  slow  and  silent  motion,  along  the  spaces  of  the 
firmament!  Such  expansive  and  novel  scenes  would  un¬ 
doubtedly  overwhelm  the  faculties  of  such  beings  with  asto¬ 
nishment,  and  transport,  and  wonder  inexpressible. 

We  are  placed,  perhaps,  in  a  situation  nearly  similar  in 
regard  to  the  remote  regions  of  the  universe,  as  the  beings 
we  have  supposed  were  situated  with  respect  to  the  ample 
prospects  we  enjoy  on  the  surface  of  our  globe.  Were  such 
beings,  from  their  subterranean  abodes,  to  look  through  a  nar¬ 
row  funnel  which  presented  them  with  a  feeble  glimpse  of 
our  upper  world,  and  of  a  portion  of  the  sky,  the  view  thus 
obtained  would  somewhat  resemble  the  partial  glimpse  we 
have  yet  acquired  of  the  splendour  and  sublimities  of  the  dis- 
Vol.  VIII.  2 


14  GENERAL  VIEWS  OF  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS. 


tant  universe ;  and  were  we  transported  to  those  far  dis¬ 
tant  scenes,  which  appear  through  our  telescopes  only  like 
dim  specks  of  light,  we  should,  doubtless,  be  as  much  over¬ 
powered  with  astonishment  and  wonder  at  the  magnificent 
scenes  which  would  open  to  our  view,  as  our  supposed  sub¬ 
terraneous  inhabitants  could  be  at  the  amplitude  and  grandeur 
of  our  terrestrial  abode. 

In  our  present  habitation  we  are  confined  to  a  mere  point 
in  the  infinity  of  space.  Ample  as  our  prospects  are,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  views  we  have  already  attained  bear  a 
less  proportion  to  the  whole  immensity  of  creation  than  the 
limited  range  of  a  microscopic  animalcule  bears  to  the  wide 
expanse  of  the  ocean.  What  is  seen  by  human  eyes,  even 
when  assisted  by  the  most  powerful  instruments,  may  be  as 
nothing  when  compared  to  what  is  unseen  and  placed  fbr  ever 
beyond  the  view  of  mortals.  Since  the  heavens  first  began  to 
be  contemplated,  our  views  have  been  carried  thousands  of 
times  further  into  the  regions  of  space  than  the  unassisted 
eye  could  enable  us  to  penetrate ;  and  at  every  stage  of  im¬ 
provement  in  optical  instruments  our  prospects  have  been 
still  further  extended,  new  objects  and  new  regions  of  crea¬ 
tion  have  appeared  rising  to  view,  in  boundless  perspective, 
in  every  direction,  without  the  least  indication  of  a  boundary 
to  the  operations  of  Omnipotence ;  leaving  us  no  room  to 
doubt  that  all  we  have  hitherto  discovered  is  but  a  small  and 
inconsiderable  part  of  the  length  and  breadth,  and  the  height 
and  depth  of  immensity.  We  may  suppose,  without  the  least 
degree  of  improbability  or  extravagance,  that,  were  the  whole 
of  the  visible  system  of  creation  annihilated,  though  it  would 
leave  a  void  immeasurable  and  incomprehensible  by  mortals, 
it  would  appear  to  the  eye  of  Omniscience  only  as  an  incon¬ 
siderable  blank  scarcely  discernible  amidst  the  wonders  of 
wisdom  and  omnipotence  with  which  it  is  surrounded. 

Such  views  and  deductions  have  been  derived  from  attentive 
surveys  of  the  Starry  Heavens.  These  heavens  present, 
even  to  the  untutored  observer,  a  sublime  and  elevating  spec¬ 
tacle.  He  beholds  an  immense  concave  hemisphere,  sur¬ 
rounding  the  earth  in  every  region,  and  resting,  as  it  were, 
upon  the  circle  of  the  horizon.  Wherever  he  roams  abroad, 
on  the  surface  of  the  land  or  of  the  ocean,  this  celestial  vault 
still  appears  encompassing  the  world;  and  after  travelling 
thousands  of  miles,  it  seems  to  make  no  nearer  an  approach 
than  when  the  journey  commenced.  From  every  quarter  of 
this  mighty  arch  numerous  lights  are  displayed,  moving  on¬ 
ward  in  solemn  silence,  and  calculated  to  inspire  admiration 


REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS.  15 

and  awe.  Even  the  rudest  savages  have  been  struck  witli 
admiration  at  the  view  of  the  nocturnal  heavens,  and  have 
regarded  the  celestial  luminaries  either  as  the  residences  of 
their  gods,  or  the  arbiters  of  their  future  destinies. 

But  to  minds  enlightened  with  the  discoveries  of  science 
and  revelation  the  firmament  presents  a  scene  incomparably 
more  magnificent  and  august.  Its  concave  rises  towards  im¬ 
mensity,  and  stretches,  on  every  hand,  to  regions  immeasurable 
by  any  finite  intelligence  ;  it  opens  to  the  vie  w  a  glimpse  of 
orbs  of  inconceivable  magnitude  and  grandeur,  and  arranged 
in  multitudes  which  no  man  can  number,  which  have  diffused 
their  radiance  on  the  earth  during  hundreds  of  generations  ; 
it  opens  a  vista  which  carries  our  views  into  the  regions  of 
infinity ,  and  exhibits  a  sensible  display  of  the  immensity  of 
space,  and  of  the  boundless  operations  of  Omnipotence ;  it 
demonstrates  the  existence  of  an  eternal  and  incomprehensible 
Divinity,  who  presides  in  all  the  grandeur  of  his  attributes 
over  an  unlimited  empire ;  it  overwhelms  the  contemplative 
mind  with  a  display  of  the  riches  of  his  wisdom  and  the 
glories  of  his  Omnipotence  ;  it  directs  our  prospects  to  the 
regions  of  other  worlds,  where  ten  thousand  times  ten  thou¬ 
sands  of  intelligences,  of  various  orders,  experience  the  effects 
of  divine  love  and  beneficence.  Amidst  the  silence  and  the 
solitude  of  the  midnight  scene,  it  inspires  the  soul  with  a 
solemn  awe  and  with  reverential  emotions ;  it  excites  admira¬ 
tion,  astonishment,  and  wonder  in  every  reflecting  mind,  and 
has  a  tendency  to  enkindle  the  fire  of  devotion,  and  to  raise 
the  affections  to  that  ineffable  Being  who  presides  in  high 
authority  over  all  its  movements.  While  contemplating,  with 
the  eye  of  intelligence,  this  immeasurable  expanse,  it  teaches 
us  the  littleness  of  man,  and  of  all  that  earthly  pomp  and 
splendour  of  which  he  is  so  proud  ;  it  shews  us  that  this 
world,  with  all  its  furniture  and  decorations,  is  but  an  almost 
invisible  speck  on  the  great  map  of  the  universe  \  and  that 
our  thoughts  and  affections  ought  to  soar  above  all  its  sinful 
pursuits  and  its  transitory  enjoyments.  In  short,  in  this  uni¬ 
versal  temple,  hung  with  innumerable  lights,  we  behold,  with 
the  eye  of  imagination,  unnumbered  legions  of  bright  intelli¬ 
gences,  unseen  by  mortal  eyes,  celebrating,  in  ecstatic  strains, 
the  perfections  of  Him  who  is  the  creator  and  governor  of 
all  worlds, — we  are  carried  forward  to  an  eternity  to  come, 
amidst  whose  scenes  and  revolutions  alone  the  magnificent 
objects  it  contains  can  be  contemplated  in  all  their  extent  and 
grandeur. 

It  is  an  evidence  of  the  depraved  and  grovelling  disposi 


16 


INQUIRIES  SUGGESTED 


tions  of  man  that  the  firmament  is  so  seldom  contemplated 
with  the  eye  of  reason  and  devotion.  No  other  studies  can 
present  an  assemblage  of  objects  so  wonderful  and  sublime ; 
and  yet,  of  all  the  departments  of  knowledge  which  are  gene¬ 
rally  prosecuted,  no  one  is  so  little  understood  or  appreciated 
by  the  bulk  of  mankind  as  the  science  of  the  heavens.  Were 
it  more  generally  studied,  or  its  objects  were  frequently  con¬ 
templated,  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  purify  and  elevate  the 
soul,  to  expand  and  ennoble  the  intellectual  faculty,  and  to 
supply  interesting  topics  for  conversation  and  reflection.  The 
objects  in  the  heavens  are  so  grand,  so  numerous,  so  diver¬ 
sified,  and  so  magnificent,  both  in  their  size  and  in  the  rapidity 
of  their  motions,  that  there  appears  no  end  to  speculation,  to 
inquiry,  to  conjecture,  to  incessant  admiration.  There  is 
ample  room  for  all  the  faculties  of  the  brightest  genius  to  be 
employed,  and  to  expatiate  in  all  their  energy  on  this  bound¬ 
less  theme ;  and  were  they  thus  employed  more  frequently 
than  they  are,  our  views  of  the  arrangement,  and  the  nature 
of  the  magnificent  globes  of  heaven,  might  be  rendered  still 
more  definite  and  expansive. 

While  contemplating  the  expanse  of  the  starry  heavens,  the 
mind  is  naturally  led  into  a  boundless  train  of  speculations 
and  enquiries.  Where  do  these  mighty  heavens  begin,  and 
where  do  they  end  ?  Can  imagination  fathom  their  depth,  or 
human  calculations  and  figures  express  their  extent  ?  Have 
angels  or  archangels  ever  winged  their  flight  across  the  bound¬ 
aries  of  the  firmament  ?  Can  the  highest  created  beings  mea¬ 
sure  the  dimensions  of  those  heavens,  or  explore  them 
throughout  all  their  departments  ?  Is  there  a  boundary  to 
creation  beyond  which  the  energies  of  Omnipotence  are  un¬ 
known,  or  does  it  extend  throughout  the  infinity  of  space  ? 
Is  the  immense  fabric  of  the  universe  yet  completed,  or  is 
almighty  power  still  operating  throughout  the  boundless 
dimensions  of  space,  and  new  creations  still  starting  into 
existence  ?  At  what  period  in  duration  did  this  mighty  fabric 
commence,  and  when  will  it  be  completed  ?  Will  a  period 
ecer  arrive  when  the  operations  of  creating  power  shall  cease, 
or  will  they  be  continued  throughout  all  the  revolutions  of 
eternity  ?  What  various  orders  of  intellectual  beings  people 
the  vast  regions  of  the  universe  ?  With  what  mental  energies 
and  corporeal  powers  are  they  endowed  ?  Are  they  confined 
to  one  region  of  space,  or  are  they  invested  with  powers  of 
locomotion,  which  enable  them  to  wing  their  flight  from  world 
to  world  ?  Are  they  making  rapid  advances,  from  age  to  age, 
in  intellectual  improvement?  Has  moral  evil  ever  made 


BY  THE  STARRY  HEAVENS. 


17 


inroads  into  those  remote  regions  of  creation,  or  are  all  their 
inhabitants  confirmed  in  a  state  of  innocence  and  bliss  ?  Is 
their  history  diversified  by  new  and  wonderful  events,  and  do 
changes  and  revolutions  happen  among  them  ?  Are  all  the 
tribes  of  intellectual  natures  throughout  creation  connected 
together  by  certain  relations  and  bonds  of  union,  and  will  a 
period  ever  arrive  in  the  future  revolutions  of  eternity  when 
they  shall  have  had  an  intimate  correspondence  with  one 
another  ?  These,  and  hundreds  of  similar  enquiries,  are 
naturally  suggested  by  serious  contemplations  of  the  objects 
connected  with  the  starry  heavens,  and  they  have  a  tendency 
to  lead  the  mind  to  sublime  and  interesting  trains  of  thought 
and  reflection,  and  to  afford  scope  for  the  noblest  energies  of 
the  human  soul. 

But  leaving  such  reflections,  in  the  meantime,  let  us  now 
take  a  general  view  of  the  starry  heavens  as  they  appear  to 
the  eye  of  a  common  spectator. 

When  an  untutored  observer  attempts  to  take  a  serious 
survey  of  the  starry  firmament  for  the  first  time,  he  is  apt  to 
be  bewildered  at  the  idea  of  the  immense  multitude  of  stars 
which  seem  to  present  themselves  in  every  part  of  the  sky, 
and  the  apparent  confusion  with  which  they  seem  to  be  ar¬ 
ranged.  He  is  apt  to  think  that  they  are  absolutely  innumer¬ 
able,  and  that  all  attempts  to  enumerate  or  to  classify  them 
would  be  in  vain.  There  is  something  so  magnificent  and 
overpowering  in  a  cursory  view  of  a  clear  starry  sky,  that 
the  mind  shrinks  from  the  idea  of  ever  being  able  to  form  a 
distinct  conception  of  the  number  and  order  of  those  luminous 
orbs,  or  of  their  distances  and  magnitudes ;  but  the  genius 
and  industry  of  man  have,  in  numerous  instances,  accom¬ 
plished  what  at  first  view  appeared  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
human  faculties.  All  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  have 
been  numbered,  and  their  relative  positions  determined,  with 
as  much  precision  as  the  longitudes,  latitudes,  and  bearings  of 
places  on  the  surface  of  the  globe ;  and  there  is  not  a  star 
visible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  but  its  precise  position  can  be 
pointed  out,  not  only  during  the  shades  of  night,  but  even 
during  the  day,  when  the  sun  is  shining  in  all  his  splendour. 

In  order  to  prevent  confusion  in  our  first  surveys  of  the 
starry  heavens,  let  us  fix  upon  a  certain  portion  of  the  firma¬ 
ment,  and  the  more  conspicuous  stars  which  lie  in  its  imme¬ 
diate  vicinity.  Let  us  suppose  ourselves  contemplating  the 
heavens  about  the  middle  of  January,  at  eight  o’clock  in  the 
evening,  in  the  latitude  52°  north.  At  that  time,  if  we  turn 
our  faces  toward  the  south,  we  shall  behold  the  splendid  con* 

2 * 


18 


VIEWS  OF  THE  FIRMAMENT. 


stellation  of  Orion  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  meridian,  or 
nearly  approaching  the  south.  This  constellation  forms  one 
of  the  most  striking  and  beautiful  clusters  of  stars  in  the 
heavens,  and  is  generally  recognised  even  by  common  ob¬ 
servers.  It  is  distinguished  by  four  brilliant  stars  in  the  form 
of  an  oblong,  or  parallelogram  ;  and  particularly  by  three 
bright  stars  in  a  straight  line  near  the  middle  of  the  square, 
or  parallelogram,  which  are  known  by  the  names  of  “  the 
Three  Kings,”  or  the  “Ell,”  or  “Yard.”  They  are  also 
termed  Orion’s  belt ;  and  in  the  book  of  Job,  “  the  bands  of 
Orion and  the  space  they  occupy  is  exactly  three  degrees 
in  length.  The  line  passing  through  these  three  stars  points 
to  the  Pleiades ,  or  seven  stars,  on  the  one  side,  and  to  Sirius , 
or  the  Dog  Star,  on  the  other.  The  equinoctial  circle  passes 
through  the  uppermost  of  these  stars,  which  is  called  Mintika. 
They  are  situated  about  eight  degrees  west  from  the  solstitial 
colure ,  or  that  great  circle  which  passes  through  the  poles  of 
the  heavens,  and  the  first  points  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  in 
which  the  sun  is  in  his  greatest  declination  north  and  south, 
which  happens  on  the  21st  of  June  and  21st  of  December. 
There  is  a  row  of  small  stars  which  run  down  obliquely 
below  the  belt,  and  seem  to  hang  from  it,  which  is  deno¬ 
minated  the  sword  of  Orion.  About  the  middle  of  this  row 
of  stars  there  is  perceived,  by  means  of  the  telescope,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  nebulce.  in  the  heavens.  The  whole 
number  of  stars  visible  by  the  naked  eye  in  this  constellation 
has  been  reckoned  at  about  78 ;  of  wrhich  two  are  of  the  first 
magnitude — namely,  Rigel ,  in  the  left  foot  on  the  west,  and 
Betelguese ,  on  the  east  shoulder.  They  are  connected  by  a 
line  drawn  through  the  uppermost  star  of  the  belt.  There 
are  four  stars  of  the  second  magnitude,  three  of  the  third,  and 
fifteen  of  the  fourth  ;  but  several  thousands  of  stars  have  been 
perceived  by  good  telescopes  within  the  limits  of  this  con¬ 
stellation. 

North  by  west  of  Orion  is  the  constellation  Taurus ,  or  the 
Bull,  one  of  the  signs  of  the  zodiac.  The  Pleiades ,  or  the 
seven  stars,  so  frequently  alluded  to  both  in  ancient  and 
modern  times,  form  a  portion  of  this  constellation.  At  the 
time  now  supposed,  they  are  a  very  little  beyond  the  meridian 
to  the  west,  and  about  thirty-seven  degrees  north  by  west  of 
the  belt  of  Orion,  at  an  elevation  above  the  horizon  of  about 
sixty-four  degrees.  This. cluster  was  described  by  the  ancients 
as  consisting  of  seven  stars,  but  at  present  only  six  can  be 
distinguished  by  the  nake  i  eye.  With  powerful  telescopes, 
however,  more  than  200  stars  have  been  counted  within  the 


POSITIONS  OF  STARS  AND  CONSTELLATIONS.  19 


limits  of  this  group.  The  Hyades  is  another  cluster,  situated 
about  eleven  degrees  south-east  from  the*  Pleiades,  consisting 
chiefly  of  small  stars,  so  arranged  as  to  form  a  figure  some¬ 
what  like  the  letter  V.  On  the  left,  at  the  top  of  the  letter,  is 
a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  named  Aldebaran ,  or  the  Bull’s 
Eye,  which  is  distinguished  from  most  of  the  other  stars  by 
its  ruddy  appearance.  This  constellation  is  situated  between 
Perseus  and  Auriga  on  the  north,  and  has  Gemini  on  the 
east,  Aries  on  the  west,  and  Orion  and  Eridanus  on  the  south. 
It  consists  of  about  140  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

The  constellation  Gemini  is  situated  north-east  from  Orion. 

> 

and  almost  due  east  from  the  Pleiades,  and  is  one  of  the  signs 
of  the  zodiac.  It  has  Cancer  on  the  east,  Taurus  on  the 
west,  and  the  Lynx  on  the  north.  The  orbit  of  the  earth,  or 
the  apparent  circle  described  by  the  sun  in  his  annual  course, 
passes  through  the  middle  of  this  constellation.  From  the 
21st  of  June  till  the  23rd  of  July,  the  sun  passes  through  this 
sign,  but  the  stars  of  which  it  is  composed  are  then  invisible, 
being  overpowered  by  the  superior  brightness  of  the  solar 
rays.  This  constellation  is  easily  distinguished  by  two  brilliant 
stars,  denominated  Castor  and  Pollux ,  which  are  within  five 
degrees  of  each  other.  Castor ,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude, 
is  the  northernmost  of  the  two  ;  and  Pollux ,  a  star  of  the 
second  magnitude,  is  situated  a  little  to  the  south-east  of  it. 
Castor  is  found  by  the  telescope  to  be  a  double  star,  the 
smaller  one  being  invisible  to  the  naked  eye ;  and,  from  a 
long  series  of  observations,  it  is  found  that  the  smaller  star  is 
revolving  around  the  larger  with  a  slow  motion,  and  that  a 
complete  revolution  will  occupy  more  than  300  years.  About 
twenty  degrees  south-west  of  Castor  and  Pollux  are  three 
small  stars,  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  and  about  three  or  four 
degrees  distant  from  each  other.  The  southernmost  of  the 
three  lies  nearly  in  a  line  with  Pollux  and  the  star  Betelguese , 
in  the  constellation  of  Orion,  but  somewhat  nearer  to  Betel¬ 
guese  than  to  Pollux.  These  stars,  in  the  hieroglyphic  figure 
of  Gemini,  form  the  feet  of  the  twins. 

Directly  south  of  Gemini  is  the  constellation  of  Canis 
Minor ,  or  the  Lesser  Dog.  It  is  situated  about  mid-way  be¬ 
tween  Gemini  and  Canis  Major ,  or  the  Greater  Dog,  and  has 
Hydra  on  the  east,  and  Orion  on  the  west.  It  consists  of 
only  about  fourteen  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  the  princi¬ 
pal  of  which  is  Procyon ,  a  bright  star  between  the  first  and 
second  magnitude.  It  is  almost  directly  south  from  Pollux, 
and  distant  from  it  about  twenty-four  degrees.  The  next 
brightest  star  in  this  constellation,  which  is  considerably 


20  POSITIONS  OF  STARS  AND  CONSTELLATIONS. 


smaller  than  Procyon,  is  called  Gomelza ,  and  is  situated 
about  four  degrees  north-west  of  Procyon. 

South  by  west  of  Canis  Minor,  at  the  distance  of  nearly 
thirty  degrees,  is  Canis  Major ,  or  the  Greater  Dog.  It  is 
south-east  from  the  belt  of  Orion,  and  due  east  from  the  con¬ 
stellation  of  Lepus ,  or  the  Hare,  at  the  distance  of  ten  degrees. 
Canis  Major  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  brilliancy  of  its 
principal  star,  Sirius ,  which  is  apparently  the  largest  and 
brightest  fixed  star  in  the  heavens,  so  that  it  is  generally  con¬ 
sidered  as  one  of  the  nearest  of  these  distant  orbs,  though  its 
distance  from  the  earth  is  computed  at  not  less  than  twenty 
billions  of  miles ;  and  a  cannon  ball,  moving  over  this  im¬ 
mense  space  at  the  rate  of  nineteen  miles  a  minute,  would  re¬ 
quire  more  than  two  millions  of  years  before  it  could  reach 
this  distant  orb.  Sirius  is  south  by  east  of  Betelguese  in  the 
left  shoulder  of  Orion,  at  the  distance  of  twenty-seven  de¬ 
grees,  and  south-east  from  the  lower  star  in  the  belt,  at  the 
distance  of  twenty-three  degrees.  A  line  drawn  through  the 
three  stars  which  form  the  belt,  towards  the  south-east,  leads 
the  eye  directly  to  Sirius,  which,  at  the  period  and  hour  we 
have  stated,  is  about  twelve  degrees  above  the  south-easterly 
point  of  the  horizon  ;  a  line  drawn  from  Betelguese  south¬ 
east  towards  Sirius,  and  thence  to  the  north-east  meets  Procyon 
in  Canis  Minor,  and  continued  nearly  due  west,  it  again 
meets  Betelguese,  so  that  these  three  stars  seem  to  form  a 
large  triangle,  which  is  nearly  equilateral.  Another  triangle 
is  formed  by  drawing  a  line  eastward  from  Betelguese  to  Pro¬ 
cyon,  as  a  base,  from  Procyon  straight  north  to  Pollux,  and 
from  thence  again  south-west  to  Betelguese,  which  forms  a 
right-angled  triangle,  having  the  right  angle  at  the  star  Pro¬ 
cyon,  and  the  line  extending  from  Pollux  to  Betelguese  forms 
the  hypothenuse. 

In  order  to  render  these  descriptions  more  definite,  I  have 
sketched  in  Plate  I.  a  small  map  of  this  portion  of  the  heavens, 
in  which  the  principal  stars  in  the  constellations  above  de¬ 
scribed  are  represented.  The  left- hand  side  of  this  map  re¬ 
presents  the  east ;  the  right- hand  side  the  ivest ;  the  lower 
part,  the  south;  and  the  upper  part,  the  north,  or  higher  por¬ 
tion  of  the  heavens.  When  used  so  as  to  compare  it  with  the 
real  firmament,  the  observer  is  supposed  to  have  his  face  di¬ 
rected  chiefly  to  the  south  and  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the 
sky.  He  may  then  easily  distinguish  the  principal  stars  laid 
down  in  it  by  the  following  directions : — A  line  drawn  from 
A  to  J5,  at  the  top  of  the  map,  passes  through  the  star  Castor 
in  Gemini,  which  is  near  the  left-hand  side.  A  line  drawn 


REPRESENTING  A  PORTION  OP  THE  SOUTHERN  PAR'!  )F 


Between  pages  20 — 21 


L  E  I. 

r.F  THE  HEAVENS,  ABOUT  THE  MIDDLE  OF  JANUARY. 


POSITIONS  OF  STARS  AND  CONSTELLATIONS.  21 

from  C  to  j D,  passes  through  Pollux  in  the  same  sign,  which 
is  four  or  five  degrees  to  the  south-east  of  Castor;  it  likewise 
passes  near  Auriga ,  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  in  the 
constellation  of  the  Wagoner ,  which  is  represented  near  the 
middle  of  the  line.  Almost  directly  north  from  Auriga,  at  the 
distance  of  seventeen  degrees,  is  the  star  Capella ,  in  the  same 
constellation,  which  is  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the  hea¬ 
vens  next  to  Sirius.  It  is  about  twenty-eight  degrees  north¬ 
east  from  the  Pleiades,  but  is  beyond  the  northern  limits  of 
the  map.  A  line  drawn  from  E  to  F,  passes  through  Aldeba - 
ran,  or  the  Bull’s  Eye,  and  the  Plyades ;  north-west  of  which 
is  the  Pleiades,  or  seven  stars,  near  the  north-west  part  of  the 
map.  A  line  drawn  from  G  to  If,  passes  through  the  star 
Betelguese ,  in  the  east  shoulder  of  Orion;  the  line  from  /  to 
AT,  passes  through  Bellatrix ,  in  the  west  shoulder,  a  star  of 
the  second  magnitude,  somewhat  less  brilliant  than  Betel¬ 
guese,  and  likewise  passes  through  Procyon ,  in  Canis 
Minor,  which  appears  near  the  left  side  of  the  map ;  and  the 
line  from  L  to  M  passes  through  the  middle  star  of  Orion’s 
belt.  The  line  from  JY  to  0  passes  through  Bigel ,  in  the 
left  foot  of  Orion,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  fifteen  degrees 
south  of  Bellatrix.  The  line  P  Q  passes  through  Saiph ,  a 
star  of  the  third  magnitude,  in  Orion’s  right  knee,  eight  and  a 
half  degrees  east  of  Rigel.  These  two  form  the  lower  end  of 
the  parallelogram  of  Orion.  The  line  R  S  passes  through  tli6 
star  Sirius,  in  Canis  Major,  which  is  east  by  south  from  Saiph, 
at  the  distance  of  fifteen  degrees.  The  small  stars  to  the 
west,  or  right  hand  of  Sirius,  form  a  part  of  the  constellation 
of  Lepus ,  or  the  Hare.  A  line  drawn  from  T  to  U ,  from  the 
northern  to  the  southern  part  of  the  map,  will  point  out  the 
position  of  the  stars  here  represented  with  respect  to  the  me¬ 
ridian,  at  the  time  these  observations  are  supposed  to  be  made. 
The  stars  on  the  right  of  this  line  are  west  of  the  meridian, 
and  all  those  to  the  left  are  to  the  east  of  it. 

By  attending  to  the  above  directions,  and  comparing  the 
delineations  on  the  map  with  the  heavens,  all  the  stars  and 
constellations  noted  above  may  be  readily  distinguished.  The 
triangles  formed  by  Betelguese,  Procyon,  and  Sirius,  and  by 
Pollux,  Procyon,  and  Betelguese,  will  likewise  be  seen  on 
the  map,  as  formerly  described,  and  may  be  easily  traced  in 
the  heavens.  Although  I  have  fixed  on  the  middle  of  January, 
at  eight  o’clock  in  the  evening,  for  these  observations,  yet  the 
same  stars  may  be  traced,  at  different  hours,  during  the  months 
of  November,  December,  January,  February,  and  March. 
About  the  middle  of  November,  at  midnight,  and  the  middle 


22  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLANISPHERES. 

of  December,  at  ten  o’clock,  p.  m.,  this  portion  of  the  heaven# 
will  appear  nearly  in  the  same  position  as  here  represented. 
About  the  middle  of  February,  Orion  will  be  on  the  meridian 
about  eight  in  the  evening ;  and  in  the  month  of  March,  at 
the  same  hour,  considerably  to  the  west  of  it ;  but  all  the  ad¬ 
jacent  stars  and  constellations  may  be  traced  at  this  time  in 
the  manner  already  described.  The  stars  and  constellations 
delineated  on  this  map  comprehend  a  space  in  the  heavens 
extending  in  breadth,  from  north  to  south,  about  fifty  degrees 
— namely,  from  thirty-three  degrees  of  north  declination  to 
seventeen  degrees  south ;  and  in  length,  from  west  to  east, 
about  sixty  degrees.  The  equator  runs  through  this  portion 
of  the  heavens  in  the  direction  a  b ,  or  nearly  corresponding 
to  the  line  L  M,  so  that  it  passes  very  near  to  the  upper  star 
in  the  belt  of  Orion.  The  degrees  of  north  and  south  decli¬ 
nation*  from  the  equator  are  marked  on  the  margin. 

Plate  II.  represents  another  portion  of  the  heavens  as  it  ap¬ 
pears  about  the  beginning  of  September.  It  includes  some  of 
the  larger  stars  belonging  to  the  constellations  Cygnus ,  Lyra , 
Cerberus ,  Serpentarius ,  Jiquila ,  Hercules ,  and  Corona  Bo¬ 
realis.  At  ten  o’clock  in  the  evening  of  the  1st  of  September, 
the  star  Altair  in  the  constellation  of  Aquila,  or  the  Eagle, 
will  be  nearly  on  the  meridian,  at  an  elevation  above  the  hori¬ 
zon  of  about  forty-six  degrees.  This  star,  which  is  between 
the  first  and  second  magnitude,  is  situated  near  the  east  or 
left-hand  side  of  the  map,  near  the  bottom,  and  has  a  small  star 
to  the  south,  and  another  to  the  north-west  of  it.  A  line  drawn 
from  T  to  U  passes  through  the  star  Altair,  and  a  line  from 
V  to  W  passes  through  the  meridian  at  the  hour  supposed. 

The  seven  stars  which  are  nearest  Altair,  towards  the  south, 
and  west,  and  north-west,  belong  to  the  constellation  of 
Jiquila.  All  the  stars  on  the  map  which  are  to  the  right-hand 
of  Altair,  are  west  of  the  meridian.  A  line  drawn  from  X  to 
Y,  near  the  top  of  the  map,  passes  through  Denib ,  a  bright 
star  of  the  second  magnitude  in  the  constellation  of  Cygnus , 
or  the  Swan,  which  is  the  star  next  the  left-hand  side,  nearly 
due  north  from  Altair,  at  the  distance  of  thirty-six  degrees ; 
the  other  four  stars  adjacent  to  it  belong  to  the  same  con¬ 
stellation.  A  line  drawn  from  J1  to  B  passes  through  the 
star  Vega ,  or  a  Lyrce ,  a  brilliant  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in 

*  The  declination  of  a  heavenly  body  is  its  distance  north  or  south  from 
the  equinoctial,  or  equator,  and  corresponds  to  latitude  on  the  terraqueous 
globe,  which  is  the  distance  of  a  place  from  the  equator.  The  latitude 
of  a  heavenly  body  is  its  distance  north  or  south  of  the  ecliptic,  or  apparent 
path  of  the  sun,  which  forms  an  angle  of  32^  degrees  with  the  equinoctial. 


PLAT 


EXHIBITING  A  PORTION  OF  THE  CONSTELLATION 


Between  pages  22 — 23 


I 


'  > 


■ 


l 


V 


*r  * 


; 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLANISPHERES.  ,23 

the  constellation  of  the  Harp.  The  six  small  stars  to  the 
south-east  of  it  likewise  belong  to  this  constellation.  The 
stars  on  the  right,  or  to  the  westward  of  Vega,  belong  chiefly 
to  the  constellation  of  Hercules.  A  line  drawn  from  C  to  JD 
passes  through  the  principal  star  Corona  Borealis ,  or  the 
Northern  Crown,  named  Alphacca ,  which  is  of  the  third 
magnitude,  and  near  the  right-hand  side  of  the  map.  The 
stars  north  and  east  from  it  belong  to  the  same  constellation. 
West  from  Alphacca  is  Mirac ,  at  the  distance  of  eleven  de¬ 
grees  ;  and  south-west  of  Mirac,  at  the  distance  of  ten  degrees, 
is  Arcturus ,  a  bright  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  which  is  then 
about  eighteen  degrees  above  the  western  horizon.  Both 
these  stars  are  in  the  constellation  of  Bootes ,  but  they  are  not 
within  the  limits  of  the  map.  A  line  drawn  from  F  to  G 
passes  through  Ras  Algeria,  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude, 
and  the  principal  star  in  the  constellation  of  Hercules ,  which 
is  twenty-five  degrees  south-east  of  Corona  Borealis.  A  line 
from  H  to  I  passes  through  Ras  Alhague ,  a  star  of  the  se¬ 
cond  magnitude  in  the  head  of  Serpentarius.  This  star  is  five 
degrees  east  by  south  of  Ras  Algethi.  Most  of  the  other  stars 
to  the  south  and  east  in  the  map  belong  to  Serpentarius. 
Various  other  remarkable  stars  may  be  seen  at  this  time  be¬ 
sides  those  noted  in  the  map,  particularly  the  square  of  Pe¬ 
gasus ,  or  the  Flying  Horse.  About  fifty-three  degrees  nearly 
east  from  Altair  is  Markab ,  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude; 
sixteen  and  a  half  degrees  east  of  Markab  is  Algenib ,  another 
star  of  the  second  magnitude ;  fourteen  degrees  north  of  Alge¬ 
nib  is  Alpheratz ,  and  fourteen  degrees  west  of  Alpheratz  is 
Scheat ,  both  of  them  stars  of  the  second  magnitude.  These 
four  stars,  of  nearly  equal  magnitudes,  form  the  Square  of 
Pegasus ,  and  appear  nearly  half-way  between  the  eastern 
horizon  and  the  meridian. 

All  the  stars  alluded  to  above  may  likewise  be  seen  during 
the  months  of  July  and  August,  when  they  will  appear  in  a 
more  easterly  position  than  at  the  time  stated  above;  and  in 
the  month  of  October,  at  eight  o’clock,  and  in  November,  at 
six  o’clock  in  the  evening,  they  will  be  seen  nearly  in  the 
positions  which  have  been  now  represented. 

Plate  III.  represents  a  view  of  some  of  the  principal  stars 
around  the  pole,  extending  from  the  polar  point,  in  every  di¬ 
rection,  about  forty-five  degrees.  In  using  this  map,  the  ob¬ 
server  is  supposed  to  be  looking  towards  the  north,  in  which 
case,  the  left  hand  side  of  the  map  is  towards  the  west ,  and 
the  right  side  towards  the  east.  The  large  star  near  the  centre 
of  the  map  is  the  Pole-star,  which  forms  the  tip  of  the  tail  of 


26 


NORTHERN  REGION  IN  OCTOBER. 


of  October  may  be  uppermost.  At  this  season,  Cassiopeia 
will  appear  near  the  zenith,  and  the  two  pointers  of  Ursa  Ma¬ 
jor  will  be  seen  at  the  opposite  side  of  the  pole,  at  no  great 
elevation  above  the  horizon.  Capella  will  appear  towards  the 
east,  on  the  right,  at  a  considerable  altitude,  and  the  five  stars 
in  the  head  of  Draco  considerably  to  the  west,  while  Algenib, 
and  the  other  stars  in  Perseus,  will  be  seen  in  a  high  elevation, 
to  the  east  of  Cassiopeia.  At  this  time,  likewise,  by  turning 
our  eyes  towards  the  east  and  the  south,  Aldebaran,  or  the 
Bull’s-eye,  in  the  constellation  Taurus,  will  be  seen  elevated 
about  twelve  degrees  above  the  eastern  horizon,  about  sixteen 
degrees  above  which  are  the  Pleiades,  or  seven  stars.  The 
star  Altair  will  appear  near  the  south-west,  half-way  between 
that  point  and  the  meridian,  and  Fomalhaut ,  in  the  Southern 
Fish,  will  be  seen  nearly  on  the  meridian,  only  five  or  six  de¬ 
grees  above  the  south  point  of  the  horizon. 

In  like  manner,  were  we  wishing  to  observe  the  position  of 
the  circumpolar  stars  at  any  other  hour ,  at  this  period,  than 
ten  o’clock  p.  m.,  suppose  at  eight  in  the  evening,  we  have 
only  to  turn  the  line  which  marks  the  beginning  of  September 
uppermost  instead  of  October,  and  the  position  at  that  hour 
will  be  seen ;  and  if  we  choose  to  make  our  observations  at 
six  in  the  evening  we  turn  the  first  of  August  to  the  top,  allow¬ 
ing  two  hours,  at  an  average,  for  every  month.  If  we  would 
inspect  their  position  at  twelve  midnight,  the  first  of  Novem¬ 
ber  must  be  turned  round  to  the  top,  and  so  on  for  any  other 
hour.  If  we  would  make  our  observations  in  the  beginning 
of  January  at  ten  p.  m.,  that  point  must  be  turned  to  the  top, 
and  then  the  two  pointers  will  be  seen  on  the  right,  straight 
east  of  the  pole  star,  and  the  other  five  stars  hanging  down 
from  them,  Cassiopeia  nearly  straight  west,  and  Capella  not  far 
from  the  zenith.  These  circumpolar  stars  may  therefore  be 
seen  at  every  season  of  the  year,  and  their  relative  positions 
determined  beforehand  by  simply  turning  round  the  map  to 
the  month,  or  day  of  the  month,  required,  so  that  that  point 
may  be  at  the  top ;  and  although  the  months  are  arranged  so 
as  to  correspond  with  ten  o’clock  p.  m.,  yet  the  positions  may 
be  represented  for  any  other  hour,  according  to  the  directions 
given  above. 

The  following  remarks  may  be  stated  in  reference  to  the 
stars  depicted  on  this  map  : — 1.  All  these  stars  never  set  in 
our  latitude,  but  appear  to  move  round  above  the  horizon  in 
circles  of  which  the  pole  is  the  centre.  As  the  observer  is 
supposed  to  be  in  fifty-two  degrees  N.  latitude,  all  the  stars 
within  52°  of  the  pole  never  descend  below  the  horizon.  In 


Between  pages  2G — 27 


•A"B  III. 


CirtlMI'OLAK  STARS. 


NORTHERN  REGION  IN  OCTOBER. 


27 


one  part  of  their  diurnal  course  they  appear  above  the  pole, 
and  some  of  them  near  the  zenith,  and  in  the  opposite  point 
they  appear  below  the  polar  point,  and  sometimes  near  the 
northern  horizon.  2.  In  the  higher  part  of  their  course  they 
appear  to  move  from  east  to  west,  and  in  the  lower  part  from 
west  to  east.  Those  nearest  the  pole  describe  small  circles 
around  the  polar  point,  and  those  at  greater  distances  describe 
larger  circles ;  but  their  periods  of  apparent  revolution  are  ex¬ 
actly  the  same — namely,  twenty-three  hours,  fifty-six  minutes, 
and  four  seconds.  3.  The  stars  represented  in  this  map  are 
only  those  which  are  most  prominent  and  obvious  to  the 
naked  eye,  in  order  to  prevent  confusion,  and  that  the  un¬ 
tutored  observer  may  not  be  distracted  with  too  many  objects 
at  one  view.  They  chiefly  consist  of  stars  of  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  magnitudes.  4.  In  order  that  the  observer 
may  be  able  readily  to  estimate  the  apparent  distances  of  the 
stars  from  each  other  and  from  the  horizon,  it  may  be  proper 
to  keep  in  mind  that  the  distance  between  the  two  pointers  is 
exactly  five  degrees,  and  between  Dubbe  (the  nearest  to  the 
pole)  and  the  pole  star,  twenty-nine  degrees.  By  applying 
these  measures  by  the  eye  to  other  stars,  their  apparent  dis¬ 
tances  may  be  very  nearly  estimated.  5.  Although  I  have 
stated,  in  general  terms,  that  the  pointers  come  to  the  southern 
meridian,  or  are  nearly  in  the  zenith,  at  ten  p.  m.,  about  the 
beginning  of  April,  yet  it  is  not  before  the  seventh  of  this 
month  that  they  are  accurately  in  this  position  at  ten  in  the 
evening ;  but  the  difference  is  not  much  perceptible  by  the  eye 
during  the  course  of  a  week  or  two,  and  therefore  can  lead  to 
no  great  mistake.  6.  If  the  circle  containing  the  stars  were  cut 
out,  and  surrounded  with  the  circle  of  months  and  days,  and 
made  to  revolve  within  the  circle  of  hours,  it  might  be  made 
to  serve  the  purpose  of  an  astronomical  clock  for  pointing  out 
the  hours  of  the  night,  and  likewise  for  shewing  the  positions 
of  the  circumpolar  stars  for  any  hour  of  the  day  or  night.  7. 
The  delineations  of  the  apparent  distances  of  the  stars  on  this 
map  are  on  a  scale  of  only  one-half  the  size  of  that  on  which 
the  two  preceding  maps  were  constructed. 

The  three  preceding  views  of  certain  portions  of  the 
heavens,  partly  delineated  from  actual  observation,  are  in¬ 
tended  to  convey  to  general  observers  a  natural  representation 
of  those  quarters  of  the  firmament  to  which  they  refer,  so 
that  by  a  little  further  attention  and  observation,  and  an  in¬ 
spection  of  a  celestial  atlas,  they  may  acquire  a  general  view 
of  the  principal  stars  and  constellations  visible  in  our  hemis¬ 
phere  ;  for  on  most  celestial  planispheres  and  globes  there  is 


28 


GROUPING  OF  THE  STARS. 


such  a  group  of  eyes,  noses,  legs,  tails,  claws,  and  wings  con¬ 
nected  with  the  mythological  figures  of  the  constellations,  no 
traces  of  which  can  be  seen  in  the  heavens,  that  the  learner 
is  sometimes  confounded,  and  can  scarcely  trace  any  resem¬ 
blance  between  what  is  depicted  on  such  globes  and  plani¬ 
spheres  and  the  real  aspect  of  the  firmament,  the  stars  appear¬ 
ing,  in  many  instances,  as  accidental  spots,  buried,  as  it  were, 
amidst  the  group  of  hieroglyphics  with  which  they  are  con¬ 
nected. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON  THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  STARS  INTO  CONSTELLATIONS, 
WITH  SKETCHES  OF  THEIR  MYTHOLOGICAL  HISTORY. 

In  order  to  distinguish  the  stars  from  one  another,  the 
ancients  divided  the  heavens  into  different  portions  or  spaces, 
called  constellations ,  or  groups  of  stars.  They  supposed 
each  group  to  occupy  a  space  which  a  lion,  a  bear,  a  man,  a 
harp,  or  other  object  would  fill,  if  it  were  there  delineated ; 
and  hence  the  different  constellations  were  depicted  as  if  they 
had  borne  a  resemblance  to  dragons,  dogs,  rams,  altars,  ships, 
and  similar  objects,  whether  imaginary  or  real.  The  inven¬ 
tion  of  the  constellations,  particularly  those  of  the  Zodiac,  is 
generally  attributed  to  the  Chaldeans  or  the  Egyptians ;  but 
most  probably  the  merit,  such  as  it  is,  is  due  to  the  former, 
although  the  Egyptians  appear,  at  a  very  early  period,  to  have 
derived  the  knowledge  of  astronomy  from  the  inhabitants  of 
Chaldea,  and  imparted  it  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and  other 
nations.  The  first  series  of  constellations  which  were  formed 
appear  to  have  been  those  of  the  Zodiac.  Finding  that  the 
year  consisted  neither  of  twelve  nor  of  thirteen  lunations,  in 
order  to  know  the  precise  bounds  of  the  annual  course  of  the 
sun,  they  were  under  the  necessity  of  carefully  examining 
what  stars  were  successively  obscured  in  the  evening  by  the 
motion  of  that  globe,  and  what  stars,  after  emerging  from  its 
rays,  shewed  themselves  again  before  the  dawn  of  day. 

Macrobius,  an  ancient  Roman  author,  and  Sextus  Empiri¬ 
cus,  a  Greek  writer,  have  handed  down  to  us  the  ingenious 
method  which  the  first  astronomers  used  to  determine  exactly 
the  course  which  the  sun  describes  in  the  heavens,  and  to 


DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ZODIAC.  29 

divide  the  year  into  equal  portions,  of  which  the  following  is 
a  condensed  description  : — 

They  every  day  saw  the  sun  and  the  whole  heavens  turn 
ing  round  from  the  east  to  west.  In  the  meantime  they  ob¬ 
served  that  the  sun,  by  a  motion  peculiar  to  it,  receded,  from 
day  to  day,  from  certain  stars,  and  took  its  place  under  others, 
always  advancing  towards  the  east.  As  they  found  that  twelve 
revolutions  of  the  moon  approximated  to  one  revolution  of 
the  sun,  but  that  a  certain  sensible  difference  existed,  they 
wished  that  they  might  have  twelve  divisions  of  the  year, 
which  might  be  exactly  equivalent  to  the  year  itself.  For 
this  purpose  they  took  two  brass  open  vessels,  the  one  pierced 
at  the  bottom,  and  the  other  without  any  orifice  below.  Hav¬ 
ing  stopped  the  hole  of  the  first,  they  filled  it  with  water,  and 
placed  it  so  that  the  water  might  run  out  into  the  other  vessel 
the  moment  the  cock  should  be  opened.  This  done,  they  ob¬ 
served  in  that  part  of  the  heavens  where  the  sun  has  its  annual 
course,  the  rising  of  a  star,  remarkable  either  for  its  magnitude 
or  its  brightness,  and  at  the  critical  instant  it  appeared  on  the 
horizon  they  began  to  let  the  water  flow  out  of  the  upper 
vessel  into  the  other,  during  the  rest  of  the  night  and  the 
whole  following  day,  till  the  very  moment  when  the  same 
star  began  to  appear  anew  on  the  horizon.  The  instant  it 
was  again  seen  they  took  away  the  under  vessel,  and  threw 
the  water  that  remained  in  the  upper  on  the  ground.  The 
observers  were  thus  sure  of  having  one  revolution  of  the 
whole  heaven,  between  the  first  rising  of  the  star  and  its 
return.  The  water  which  had  flowed  during  that  time  now 
afforded  them  the  means  of  measuring  the  duration  of  one 
whole  revolution  of  the  starry  firmament,  and  of  dividing 
that  duration  into  several  equal  portions.  They  then  divided 
the  water  of  the  under  vessel  into  twelve  parts,  perfectly  equal , 
and  prepared  two  other  small  vessels  capable  of  containing 
exactly  one  of  these  portions,  and  no  more.  They  again 
poured  into  the  great  copper  vessel  the  twelve  parts  of  water 
all  at  once,  keeping  the  vessels  shut  They  then  placed  under 
the  cock,  still  shut,  one  of  the  two  small  vessels,  and  another 
near  it  to  succeed  the  first  as  soon  as  it  should  be  full.  All 
these  preparations  being  ready,  the  next  night  they  observed 
that  part  of  the  heavens  towards  which  they  had  remarked 
the  sun  took  his  course,  and  waited  for  the  rising  of  the  con¬ 
stellation  which  has  since  been  called  Aries.  The  instant 
Aries  appeared,  and  they  saw  the  first  star  of  its  ascending, 
they  let  the  water  run  into  the  little  measure.  As  soon  as  it 
was  full  they  removed  it,  and  threw  the  water  out.  In  the 

3* 


30 


HIEROGLYPHIC  FIGURES  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 


meantime  they  put  the  other  empty  measure  under  the  fall. 
They  observed  accurately  all  the  stars  that  rose  during  all  the 
periods  which  the  measure  took  in  filling,  and  that  part  of  the 
heavens  was  terminated  in  their  observations  by  the  star 
which  appeared  last  on  the  horizon  the  moment  the  measure 
was  just  full.  In  like  manner  they  proceeded  with  the  other 
vessel  alternately,  till  the  two  small  vessels  were  three  times 
filled,  which  marked  out  six  divisions,  or  one-half  of  the 
course  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens.  They  were  then  forced  to 
defer  the  observation  and  measurement  of  the  other  half  of 
the  firmament  till  the  opposite  season  of  the  year,  when  they 
proceeded  as  before. 

Having  in  this  manner  determined  the  twelve  divisions  of 
the  heavens,  and  marked  the  clusters  of  stars  peculiar  to  each, 
they  proceeded  to  give  them  names,  and  in  general  termed 
them  the  stations  or  houses  of  the  sun,  three  of  which  were 
assigned  to  each  season.  The  particular  names  given  to  each 
of  the  twelve  constellations  of  the  Zodiac  are  generally  sup¬ 
posed  to  refer  to  certain  circumstances  peculiar  to  the  different 
months.  As  the  Chaldean  observers  seem  to  have  been  of 
opinion  that  there  were,  during  the  spring,  no  productions 
more  useful  than  lambs,  calves,  and  rams,  they  gave  the  con¬ 
stellations  through  which  the  sun  passes  during  that  season 
the  names  of  the  three  animals  by  which  they  were  most 
enriched.  The  first  was  named  Aries ,  or  the  Ram ;  the 
second  Taurus ,  or  the  Bull;  and  the  third  Gemini ,  or  the 
Twins, — that  is,  the  two  goats,  which  commonly  bring  forth 
two  young  at  a  time.  The  Greeks  afterwards  represented 
them  by  Castor  and  Pollux,  two  twin  brothers,  sons  of  Jupi¬ 
ter,  by  Leda,  the  wife  of  Tyndarus,  and  as  such  are  repre¬ 
sented  on  our  globes.  Having  remarked  that  there  was  a 
point  to  which  the  sun  approached  when  passing  these  signs, 
but  which  it  never  went  beyond,  and  that  it  afterwards  re¬ 
ceded  from  that  point  for  six  months  together,  this  retreat  of 
the  sun  backwards  led  them  to  distinguish  it  by  the  name  of 
an  animal  which  walks  backwards,  and  hence  it  was  deno¬ 
minated  Cancer ,  or  the  Crab.  As  the  heats  in  the  next  month 
(July)  are  most  intense,  they  compared  them  to  the  raging 
and  fierceness  of  a  lion,  and  hence  they  called  the  sign  Leo , 
that  is,  the  Lion.  As  in  the  next  month  harvest  commences, 
and  as  young  girls  were  generally  set  to  glean  in  the  fields, 
they  denominated  the  sign  corresponding  to  this  month  Virgo , 
or  the  Virgin,  which  is  represented  by  the  figure  of  a  young 
woman  holding  an  ear  of  corn. 

The  perfect  equality  of  days  and  nights  which  happens 


HIEROGLYPHIC  FIGURES  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 


31 


when  the  sun  quits  the  sign  of  Virgo,  caused  astronomers  to 
give  the  next  sign  the  name  of  Libra ,  that  is,  the  Balance, 
poised  so  as  to  represent  equal  day  and  night.  The  frequent 
diseases  which  are  produced  in  consequence  of  the  sun 
retiring  to  the  south  procured  the  next  sign  the  name  of 
Scorpio ,  or  the  Scorpion,  because  it  is  mischievous,  and  drags 
after  it  a  sting  and  venom.  When  harvest  is  over,  and  the 
fields  cleared  of  the  crops,  then  is  the  season  for  hunting, 
and  therefore  the  sign  in  which  the  sun  enters  at  that  time 
has  obtained  the  name  of  Sagittarius ,  that  is,  the  Archer,  or 
Huntsman.  The  next  constellation,  Capricorn ,  had  its  origin 
from  the  wild  goat,  whose  nature  being  to  seek  its  food  from 
the  bottom  to  the  top  of  mountains,  was  considered  emblem¬ 
atical  of  the  ascent  of  the  sun  from  the  lowest  point  of  its 
course,  in  the  beginning  of  this  sign,  to  its  highest  pitch  or 
summit  in  the  summer  solstice,  when  it  enters  the  sign  Can¬ 
cer.  The  next  sign  is  called  Aquarius ,  or  the  Water-bearer, 
emblematical  of  the  rains  which  generally  fall  at  this  season 
of  the  year;  and  the  last  sign  is  named  Pisces ,  or  the  Fishes, 
which  name  seems  to  have  been  given  because  at  the  time 
when  the  sun  enters  it  fishes  are  then  considered  as  fattest 
and  most  in  season  for  use. 

Such  were  the  names  and  symbols  which  the  ancients 
appropriated  to  that  great  circle  or  zone  of  the  heavens 
through  which  the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  appeared  to  move. 
As  the  names  of  ten  of  these  signs  or  constellations  are  bor¬ 
rowed  from  several  animals,  astronomers  gave  the  annual 
zone  which  they  compose  the  name  of  the  Zodiac ,  that  is, 
the  circle  of  animals,  from  the  Greek  word,  £coov,  an  animal. 
By  this  division  of  the  heavens,  mankind  acquired  a  new 
method  of  measuring  time,  and  of  regulating  all  their  labours. 
From  the  knowledge  of  the  Zodiac  they  obtained  an  exact 
knowledge  of  the  year  and  of  its  several  sub-divisions,  and 
the  periods  when  sowing  ought  to  commence,  and  when  the 
fruits  of  harvest  might  be  expected  to  arrive  at  maturity. 
When,  after  the  setting  of  the  sun,  they  saw  the  stars  of  the 
sign  Aries  ascend  the  opposite  horizon,  and  distant  from  the 
sun  by  one-half  of  the  sphere  of  the  heavens,  they  then  knew 
that  the  sun  was  under  the  sign  Libra ,  which,  being  the 
seventh  of  the  celestial  signs,  was  distant  from  the  first  by 
one-half  of  the  whole  Zodiac.  When,  at  the  approach  of 
day,  they  saw,  in  the  middle  of  the  firmament,  or  on  their 
meridian,  at  an  equal  distance  from  east  and  west,  the  princi¬ 
pal  star  of  the  sign  Leo,  they  understood  that  the  sun,  then 
about  to  rise,  was  at  the  distance  of  three  signs  from  Leo,  and 


32  HIEROGLYPHIC  FIGURES  OF  THE  ZODIAC. 

removed  towards  the  east  one-fourth  part  of  its  circle.  Thus, 
without  seeing  the  stars,  which  were  obscured  and  over¬ 
powered  by  the  sun’s  rays  as  he  passed  through  them,  they 
could  say,  with  a  perfect  assurance,  “the  sun  is  now  in 
Scorpio ,  and  in  two  months  hence  the  shortest  day  will 
arrive.”  On  the  sight  of  a  single  constellation,  placed  either 
in  the  eastern,  western,  or  middle  part  of  the  heavens,  they 
could  immediately  tell  in  what  sign  the  sun  was,  how  far  the 
year  was  advanced,  and  what  kinds  of  labour  were  requisite 
to  be  performed.  It  is  therefore  to  astronomy  we  are  origin¬ 
ally  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  length  of  the  year, 
and  the  commencement  of  its  different  seasons. 

The  ancients  next  proceeded  to  arrange  into  constellations 
the  other  groups  of  stars  which  were  situated  to  the  north 
and  south  of  the  Zodiac.  In  forming  this  arrangement  they 
proceeded  on  principles  similar  to  those  by  which  they  had 
delineated  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac.  They  conceived  the  dif¬ 
ferent  groups  as  if  they  bore  a  certain  resemblance  to  birds, 
beasts,  serpents,  or  to  certain  imaginary  beings,  and  gave  them 
names  corresponding  to  such  conceptions.  This  they  seem 
to  have  done  for  the  sake  of  assisting  the  memory  and  ima¬ 
gination  in  forming  a  general  idea  of  the  forms  and  the 
relative  positions  of  the  several  clusters  of  stars,  and  to  enable 
the  observer  more  readily  to  distinguish  and  to  point  out  any 
particular  star  ;  but  it  would  be  too  tedious,  and  would  con¬ 
vey  little  profitable  instruction,  to  enquire  into  the  reasons  of 
the  emblematical  figures  they  adopted,  or  to  attempt  a  detailed 
view  of  their  mythological  history. 

The  following  table  contains  a  list  of  all  the  constellations, 
ancient  and  modern,  with  the  number  of  stars  in  each,  as 
stated  in  the  Historia  Celestis  of  Flamstead ,  formerly  Royal 
Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Greenwich.  The  first  column 
contains  the  name  of  the  constellation,  the  second  column  the 
number  of  stars  it  contains,  and  the  third  column  the  prin¬ 
cipal  stars  and  their  magnitudes.  The  number  1,  expresses 
stars  of  the  first  magnitude  ;  2,  those  of  the  second  magni¬ 
tude,  &c. 

NORTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS. 


Name. 


No.  of 
Stars. 


Principal  Stars. 


Ursa  Minor — the  Little  Bear  .  .  .  24 

Ursa  Major — the  Great  Bear  ...  87 
Draco — the  Dragon  ......  80 

Cepheus  [East  of  Draco]  ....  35 

Bootes — the  Herdsman . 54 


Corona  Borealis — the  Northern?  2t 
Crown  [East  of  Bootes]  5 


..  Pole  Star,  2. 

..  Dubhe,  1 ;  Alioth,  2. 

..  Rastaben,  2. 

..  Alderamin,  3. 

..  Arcturus,  1 ;  Mirac,  3. 

..  Alphecca,  2. 


NORTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS. 


33 


Name. 

Hercules,  with  Cerberus  .  .  . 

Lyra — the  Harp  ..... 

Cygnus — the  Swan  .... 

Cassiopeia — Lady  in  her  chair  . 
Perseus,  and  Head  of  Medusa  . 
Auriga — the  Wagoner  ... 

Serpentarius — Serpent  Bearer  . 
Serpens — the  Serpent  .... 
Sagitta — the  Arrow  [N.  of  Aquila] 
Aquila  and  Antinous — the  Eagle,  &c 
Delphinus — the  Dolphin  .  .  . 

Equuleus — the  Horse’s  Head  . 
Pegasus — the  Flying  Horse 

Andromeda . 

Triangulum — the  Triangle  .  . 

Camelopardalis — Camelopard 
Leo  Minor — the  Little  Lion 
Coma  Berenices — Berenices’  Hair? 

[North  of  Virgo]  5 

Vulpecula  et  Anser — the  Fox  and? 

Goose  [South  of  Cygnus]  .  .  3 

Lacerto — the  Lizard  [East  of  Cyg¬ 
nus]  . . 

Scutum  Sobieski  [North  of  Sagitta¬ 
rius]  . 

Canis  Venatici — the  Greyhounds  . 

Lynx . 

Cerberus . 

Mons  Menelaus  [S.-E.  of  Bootes] 
Taurus  Poniatowski — the  Bull  of 
Poniatowski  [W.  of  Aquila] 

Musca — the  Fly  [N.  of  Aries] 
Tarandus — Rein  Deer  [at  N.  Pole] 


No.  of 
Stars. 

.  113 
.  21 
.  81 
.  55 
.  59 
,  66  , 
,  74  , 
,  64 
,  18 
71  . 
.  18 
,  10 
89  . 
66  . 
16 
58 
53 

43 


35 

16 

8 

25 

44 

4 

11 


6 

12 


Principal  Stars. 

Ras  Algethi,  2. 

Vega,  or  Lyra,  1. 
Deneb.,  2. 

Schedir,  3. 

Algenib,  2  ;  Algol,  2. 
Capella,  Alajoth,  1. 
Ras  Alhague,  2. 


Altair,  1  or  2. 


Markab,  2  ;  Scheat,  2. 
Alamak,  2  ;  Mirack,  2. 


Total  number  of  stars  in  t^ie?i444 
Northern  Constellations  .  .  3 


SOUTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS. 


Those  Constellations  marked  thus  f  never  rise  in  N.  latitude  52  degrees. 


Name. 

Cetus — the  Whale . 

Orion  . . 

Eridanus — the  River  Po  .  .  . 

Lepus — the  Hare  [S.  of  Orion] 
Canis  Major — the  Great  Dog 
Canis  Minor  [N.  of  Monoceros] 
Argo  Navis — the  Ship  Argo 
Hydra — the  Serpent  .... 
Crater — the  Cup  [S.  of  Virgo] 
Corvus — the  Crow  [S.  of  Virgo] 
Centaurus — the  Centaur  .  .  . 

Lupus — the  Wolf . 

Arat — the  Altar . 

Corona  Australis — Southern  Crow 
Piscis  Australis  [S.  of  Aquariusl 
Columbo  Noachi — Noah  s  Dove 


n  . 


No.  of 
Stars. 

97  ... 
78  ... 
84  ... 
19 

31  ... 
14  ... 
64  ... 
60  ... 
31  ... 
9 

35 

24 

9 

12 

24  — 
10 


Principal  Stars. 

Menkar,  2  ;  Mira,  2. 
Betelguese.  1 ;  Rigel, 
Achernar,  1. 

Sirius,  1. 

Procyon,  1. 

Canopus,  1 ;  Naos,  2. 
Cor  Hydrae,  1. 
Algorab,  3. 

Alkes,  3. 


Fomalhaut,  1. 


34 


SOUTHERN  CONSTELLATIONS. 


Name. 


No.  of 
Stars. 


Robur  Carolit  [E.  of  Argo  Navis]  . 

Grust — the  Crane . 

Phoenix  t . 

Indust — the  Indian  ...... 

Pavot — the  Peacock . 

Apust-  the  Bird  of  Paradise  .  .  . 

Apis  Muscat  Australis,  ..... 
Triangulum  Australist  [South  Tri-> 

angle] . _  .  .  _  .  .  $ 

Piscis  Volanst — the  Flying  Fish  .  . 

Cameliont  [near  the  S.  Pole]  .  .  . 

Doradot — the  Sword  Fish  .... 
Toucant — the  American  Goose  .  . 

Hydrust — the  Water  Snake  .  .  . 

Sextans — the  Sextant  [S.  of  Leo] 
Monoceros — the  Unicorn  .... 

Crux — the  Cross t . 

The  Sculptor’s  Apparatus  .... 
Circinust — the  Compasses  .... 
Brandenburgium  Sceptrum  [S.  W.  ? 

of  Orion] . 5 

Equuleus  Pictorius  ...... 

Fornax  Chemica . 

Horologium t — the  Clock  .... 

Mons  Mensat — the  Table  Mountain 
Machina  Pneumatica — the  Air  Pump 
Norma,  or  Euclid’s  Square  .  .  . 

Octans  Hadleianust — Hadley’s  Octant 
Pyxis  Gautica — Mariner’s  Compass 

Reticula  Rhomboidalist . 

Telescopiumt — the  Telescope  .  .  . 

Sculptoriot — the  Engraver’s  Tools 
Microscopium — the  Microscope  .  . 


12 

13 

13 
12 

14 
11 

4 

5 

8 

10 

6 
9 

10 

41 

31 

6 

12 

7 

6 

8 
14 
12 
30 
24 
12 
43 

8 

10 

9 

16 

10 


Principal  Star*. 


Total  number  of  stars  in  the£1097 
Southern  Constellations  .  .  3  ^ 

ZODIACAL  CONSTELLATIONS. 


Name. 

Aries — the  Ram  .  .  .  . 
Taurus — the  Bull  .  .  .  . 

Gemini — the  Twins  .  .  . 

Cancer — the  Crab  .  .  .  . 

Leo — The  Lion . 

Virgo — the  Virgin  .  .  .  . 

Libra — the  Balance  .  .  . 

Scorpio — the  Scorpion  .  . 

Sagittarius — the  Archer  .  . 

Capricornus — the  Goat  .  . 

Aquarius — the  Water  Bearer 
Pisces — the  Fishes  .  .  .  . 


Stars.  Principal  Stars. 

66  a  Arietis,  2. 

141  *■'  Aldebaran,  1 ;  Pleiades. 

85  *'•  Castor  1 ;  Pollux,  1. 

83  •"  Acubens,  3. 

95  ”*  Regulus,  1 ;  Denebola,  2, 
110  •**  Spica  Virginis,  1. 

51  •”  Zubenescnamale,  2. 

44  •“  Antares,  1. 

69 

51 


.  108  ...  Scheat,  3. 
.  113 


Total  number  of  stars  in  the jq16 
Zodiac . 9 

Total  number  of  stars  in  all  the  Constellations  :  !  :  :  :  3487 


GLASSES  OF  STARS. 


35 


Thus  all  the  visible  stars  in  the  firmament  have  been  ar¬ 
ranged  into  ninety-four  constellations,  of  which  forty-eight 
were  formed  by  the  ancients,  and  the  rest  within  the  last  two 
or  three  hundred  years.  Of  the  stars  above  enumerated, 
there  are  about  17  of  the  first  magnitude,  76  of  the  second, 
223  of  the  third,  and  the  remainder  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and 
sixth  magnitudes.  The  different  classes  of  magnitudes  are 
intended  to  express  their  apparent  brightness.  The  brightest 
stars  are  said  to  be  of  the  first  magnitude ;  those  which 
appear  next  in  brightness,  or  inferior  to  the  -first,  are  classed 
in  the  second  magnitude ;  and  so  on  down  to  the  sixth 
magnitude,  which  comprises  the  smallest  stars  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  in  the  clearest  night;  though  there  are  but  few 
eyes  that  can  distinguish  those  which  belong  to  the  sixth 
magnitude.  All  the  stars  beyond  these  limits  come  under  the 
general  denomination  of  Telescopic  stars;  and  with  the 
most  powerful  telescopes,  stars  may  be  perceived  of  all 
classes,  from  the  sixth  to  the  sixteenth  order  of  magnitudes, 
Every  increase  in  the  power  of  these  instruments  brings  into 
view  innumerable  multitudes  of  those  orbs  which  were  before 
invisible,  so  that  no  definite  limits  can  be  assigned  to  the 
apparent  brightness  or  magnitude  of  the  stars.  This  classi¬ 
fication  into  magnitudes,  however,  as  it  is  entirely  arbitrary, 
so  it  is  extremely  indefinite,  and  can  convey  no  very  accurate 
ideas  even  of  their  apparent  brightness  or  intensity  of  light. 
This  consideration  has  led  some  eminent  astronomers  to  en¬ 
deavour  to  estimate  the  apparent  brightness  of  each  star  by 
experiments  made  with  the  photometer.  From  various  ex¬ 
perimental  comparisons  of  this  kind,  the  late  Sir  Wm.  Her- 
schel  deduced  the  following  conclusions  : — 

Light  of  a  star  of  the  average  1st  magnitude  =  100 

2d  =25 

3d  =12 

4th  -  =6 

5th  -  =2 

6th  -  =1 

So  that  the  light  of  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude  is  one- 
fourth  of  that  of  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude ;  the  light  of  one 
of  the  third,  one  eighth  ;  of  the  fourth,  one  sixteenth ;  of  the 
fifth,  one-fiftieth ;  and  of  the  sixth,  only  one-hundredth  part. 
Sir  J ohn  Herschel  informs  us  that,  from  his  own  experiments, 
he  has  found  that  the  light  of  Sirius ,  the  brightest  of  all  the 


36 


CATALOGUES  OF  STARS. 


fixed  stars,  is  about  324  times  that  of  an  average  star  of  the 
sixth  magnitude. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe  that  the  stars  specified  in  the 
statements  inserted  above  are  not  all  visible  to  the  naked  eye, 
nearly  two-thirds  of  them  being  perceptible  only  by  the  tele¬ 
scope  ;  but  they  are  those  stars  whose  latitudes  and  longi¬ 
tudes,  and  whose  right  ascensions  and  declinations,  have  been 
accurately  determined.  They  form  only  a  very  small  pro¬ 
portion  of  those  which  are  found  to  exist  in  the  most  distant 
regions  of  the  firmament ;  for  by  powerful  telescopes  there 
have  been  explored,  in  a  single  speck  of  the  heavens,  a  num¬ 
ber  which  far  exceeds  that  of  all  the  visible  stars  in  the  sky ; 
and  catalogues  have  been  formed  in  modern  times  which  com¬ 
prise  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  thousand  of  these  luminaries. 

The  first  astronomer,  so  far  as  we  know,  who  attempted  to 
make  a  catalogue  of  the  stars,  was  Hipparchus  of  Rhodes,  who 
flourished  about  120  years  before  Christ.  Having  observed  a 
new  star,  which  he  had  never  seen  before,  he  began  to  doubt 
whether  there  might  not  be  changes  occasionally  taking  place 
among  these  luminaries,  and  therefore  commenced  making  a 
catalogue  of  them,  noting  down  the  position  and  magnitude 
of  each  star,  with  the  view  that,  if  any  new  stars  should  again 
appear,  or  any  of  those  observed  by  him  should  increase  or 
be  diminished  in  magnitude,  or  totally  disappear,  such  changes 
might  be  known  to  those  who  should  live  in  future  ages. 
This  catalogue,  which  was  handed  down  to  us  by  Ptolemy, 
an  ancient  Egyptian  astronomer,  has  been  of  special  use  to 
modern  astronomers,  both  in  determining  the  rate  of  the  pre¬ 
cession  of  the  equinoxes,  and  in  proving  that  certain  stars 
which  then  existed  are  no  longer  to  be  seen  in  the  heavens  ; 
thus  indicating  that  changes  and  revolutions  are  taking  place 
among  the  distant  bodies  of  the  universe.  The  catalogue  of 
Hipparchus  contained  a  description  of  the  places  of  1026 
stars.  The  Arabians  are  the  next  whom  history  represents  as 
having  attempted  to  form  a  descriptive  catalogue  of  the  stars. 
This  was  effected  by  Ulug  Beigh ,  the  grandson  of  Tamerlane, 
from  his  own  observations  made  at  Samarcand,  whose  cata¬ 
logue  contains  1022  stars.  Tycho  Brahe,  the  celebrated  Da¬ 
nish  astronomer,  who  lived  in  the  sixteenth  century,  by  means 
of  the  large  and  accurate  instruments  he  invented,  formed  a 
catalogue  of  777  stars,  which  are  considered  as  superior  in 
correctness  to  those  of  Hipparchus  and  Ulug  Beigh.  He  was 
prompted  to  this  laborious  undertaking  by  the  sudden  ap¬ 
pearance  of  a  new  star  in  Cassiopeia,  in  the  year  1572,  which 
shone  with  the  brilliancy  of  Venus,  and  was  visible  even  at 


ANTIQUITY  OF  THE  CONSTELLATIONS. 


37 


noon  day.  Bayer  soon  after  published  a  catalogue  of  1160 
stars,  in  which  he  introduced  the  practice  of  distinguishing 
the  stars  by  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  All  the  cata¬ 
logues  now  mentioned  were  formed  before  the  telescope  was 
invented,  and  contained  nearly  all  the  stars  which  could  be 
perceived  by  the  unassisted  eye.  Soon  after  the  invention  of 
the  telescope,  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  the 
celebrated  Hevelius  composed  a  catalogue  of  1888  stars,  of 
which  1553  were  observed  by  himself,  and  their  places  com¬ 
puted  for  the  year  1660.  But  some  of  our  modern  observers 
of  the  heavens  have  published  catalogues  which  contain  the 
positions  of  many  thousands  of  stars,  besides  multitudes  of 
nebulae,  of  various  descriptions,  double,  triple,  and  quadruple 
stars,  and  various  other  celestial  phenomena. 

The  division  of  the  heavens  into  constellations,  and  the 
names  and  figures  by  which  they  are  distinguished,  seem  to 
have  been  of  a  very  ancient  date.  Job,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  lived  in  a  period  prior  to  that  of  Moses,  refers  to  some 
of  them  by  the  same  names  which  they  still  bear.  “  Canst 
thou  bind  the  sweet  influences  of  Pleiades ” — or  the  seven 
stars, — “  or  loose  the  bands  of  Orion  ?”  that  is,  the  belt  of 
Orion,  which  consists  of  three  equidistant  stars  in  a  straight 
line.  “  Canst  thou  bring  forth  Mazzaroth  in  his  season  ?  or 
canst  thou  guide  Arcturus  with  his  sons  ?”  Arcturus  is  a  bright 
star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the  constellation  of  Bootes,  and 
is  here  put  for  the  constellation  itself.  The  expression  “his 
sons”  is  supposed  to  refer  to  Asterion  and  Chara ,  the  two 
Greyhounds,  with  which  he  seems  to  be  pursuing  the  Great 
Bear  around  the  North  pole,  in  the  diurnal  revolution  of  the 
heavens.  Mazzaroth  is  generally  supposed  to  refer  to  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac,  which,  by  their  appointed  revolu¬ 
tions,  produce  the  succession  of  day  and  night,  and  the  sea¬ 
sons  of  the  year.  In  another  part  of  this  book,  Job,  when 
filled  with  profound  reverence  of  the  majesty  of  God,  declares 
that  He  alone  “spreadeth  out  the  heavens,  and  maketh  Arctu¬ 
rus,  Orion,  and  the  Chambers  of  the  South.”  The  prophet 
Amos,  who  lived  800  years  before  the  Christian  era,  alludes  to 
the  same  objects  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  his  prophecy — “Ye 
who  turn  judgment  to  wormwood,  and  leave  off  righteousness 
in  the  earth,  seek  him  who  maketh  the  seven  stars  and  Orion, 
who  turneth  the  shadow  of  death  into  morning,  and  maketh 
the  day  dark  with  night ;  that  calleth  for  the  waters  of  the 
sea^  and  poureth  them  out  upon  the  face  of  the  earth :  the 
Lord  of  Hosts  is  his  name.” 

The  names  of  the  constellations,  and  th'  uyeroglyphic 
Vol.  VIII.  4 


38  SUPERSTITIOUS  ORIGIN  OP  CONSTELLATIONS. 

figures  by  which  they  are  represented,  appear,  however,  to 
have  had  their  origin  in  superstitious  and  idolatrous  notions. 
The  Egyptians,  it  is  well  known,  worshipped  the  host  of 
heaven  under  the  figures  of  most  of  the  animals  which  repre¬ 
sent  the  celestial  constellations,  particularly  the  signs  of  the 
Zodiac.  They  imagined  the  sun,  which  they  called  Osiris , 
to  be  a  proper  representative  of  the  Spirit  of  Nature,  or  the 
Supreme  Being,  who,  like  the  sun,  appears  every  where  pre¬ 
sent,  exercising  his  influence  over  the  universe.  The  moon, 
as  she  receives  her  light  from  the  sun,  was  looked  upon  as  a 
female  divinity,  and  called  /sis, — which  goddess  was  made  to 
signify  universal  nature  considered  as  passive,  and  susceptible 
of  various  impressions,  forms,  and  qualities.  They  found,  or 
imagined  they  found,  in  various  animals  some  properties  or 
qualities  corresponding  to  the  motions,  appearances,  or  influ¬ 
ences  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  This  induced  them  not 
only  to  use  those  animals  in  their  hieroglyphic  representa¬ 
tions  of  their  deities,  but  also  to  pay  them  honours.  Thus, 
by  the  Ram ,  a  prolific  animal,  they  represented  the  genial, 
fertilizing  influence  of  the  sun  in  spring;  and  by  the  hot  and 
furious  Lion ,  his  violent  scorching  heat  in  the  summer;  and 
the  Bull  was  an  emblem  of  the  various  powers  of  the  sun  in 
forwarding  the  business  of  agriculture,  in  which  this  animal 
was  of  particular  service.  As  the  overflowing  of  the  Nile  is 
particularly  beneficial  to  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  as  that  river 
was  observed  to  begin  to  swell  at  the  rising  of  Sirius,  or  the 
Dog  Star,  so  they  had  a  special  veneration  for  that  orb,  as  if 
its  divine  influence  had  contributed  to  that  fertility  which  was 
produced  by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile.  That  the  Egyptians 
worshipped  all  the  animals  depicted  on  the  Zodiac,  and  those 
which  represent  several  of  the  other  constellations,  is  proved 
by  the  testimony  of  several  ancient  authors,  particularly  Hero¬ 
dotus,  who  says  that  “  in  Egypt  all  sorts  of  beasts,  whether 
wild  or  tame,  were  accounted  as  sacred,  and  received  divine 
honours.”  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  worship  of  the 
host  of  heaven,  through  the  hieroglyphics  of  various  animals, 
was  a  general  practice  during  the  abode  of  the  children  of  Is¬ 
rael  in  that  country,  and  that  the  following  admonition  of  Mo¬ 
ses  has  a  reference  to  this  circumstance : — u  Take  heed  lest  ye 
corrupt  yourselves  and  make  you  a  graven  image,  the  simili¬ 
tude  of  any  figure,  the  likeness  of  any  male  or  female,  the 
likeness  of  any  beast  that  is  on  the  earth,  the  likeness  of  any 
fowl  that  flyeth  in  the  air,  the  likeness  of  any  thing  that  creep- 
eth  upon  the  ground,  the  likeness  of  any  fish  that  is  in  the 
waters  beneath  the  earth ;  and  lest  thou  lift  up  thine  eyes  to 


MODE  OF  DISTINGUISHING  THE  STARS. 


39 


heaven,  and  when  thou  seest  the  sun,  and  the  moon,  and  the 
stars,  even  all  the  host  of  heaven,  shouldest  be  driven  to  wor¬ 
ship  them  and  serve  them,  which  the  Lord  thy  God  hath  di¬ 
vided  unto  all  nations  under  the  whole  heaven.  But  the  Lord 
thy  God  hath  taken  you,  and  brought  you  forth  out  of  the  iron 
furnace,  even  out  of  Egypt.”  The  reference  here  made  to 
their  being  brought  out  of  Egypt  seems  evidently  intended  to 
put  the  Israelites  in  mind  of  their  deliverance  from  the  idola¬ 
trous  practices  of  the  inhabitants  of  that  country,  as  well  as 
from  the  slavery  to  which  they  had  been  subjected,  and  con¬ 
sequently  implies  that  the  Egyptians  indulged  in  the  supersti¬ 
tious  worship  to  which  we  have  alluded. 

As  it  is  the  practice  of  astronomers  to  denote  the  relative 
apparent  magnitudes  of  stars  in  each  constellation  by  the  letters 
of  the  Greek  alphabet,  the  whole  of  this  alphabet  is  here  in¬ 
serted,  that  the  unlearned  reader  may  be  enabled  to  distin¬ 
guish  the  different  characters,  and  the  order  in  which  they 
follow  each  other. 

The  first  letter  of  the  Greek  Alphabet  a,  denotes  the  largest 
or  brightest  star  in  each  constellation.  Thus,  a  Lyrae  is  the 
brightest  star  in  the  constellation  of  Lyra,  or  the  Lyre  ;  ft 
Lyrae,  the  star  next  in  brightness  to  alpha;  and  so  on  through¬ 
out  all  the  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet.  When  the  number 
of  stars  to  be  distinguished  in  any  constellation  is  greater  than 
the  number  of  letters  in  the  Greek  alphabet,  astronomers  have 
recourse  to  the  letters  of  the  English  alphabet,  and  distinguish 
the  remaining  stars,  according  to  their  apparent  brilliancy,  by 
the  letters  a,  b,  c,  d,  &c. ;  and  if  more  stars  still  remain  to  be 
distinguished,  they  resort  to  numerals,  —  thus,  a2,  d4,  See. 
From  this  mode  of  dstinguishing  the  apparent  magnitude  of 
the  stars,  the  reader  will  easily  perceive  that  those  stars  which 
are  distinguished  by  the  first  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  are 
the  largest  in  any  particular  constellation,  while  those  which 
are  marked  with  letters  towards  the  close  of  the  alphabet  are 
among  the  smaller  stars. 

GREEK  ALPHABET. 


Greek 

Characters. 

Names. 

Greek 

Capitals. 

Roman 

Characters. 

a 

Alpha 

A 

a 

ft 

Beta 

B 

b 

7 

Gamma 

r 

g 

8 

Delta 

A 

d 

f 

Epsilon 

E 

e,  short 

l 

Zeta 

Z 

z 

40 


PROPRIETY  OF  A  NEW  ARRANGEMENT 


Eta 

H 

e,  long 

>e 

Theta 

0 

th 

t 

Iota 

I 

i 

X 

Cappa 

K 

k 

A 

Lambda 

A 

1 

p 

Mu 

M 

m 

V 

Nu 

N 

n 

l 

Xi 

M 

X 

o 

Omicron 

o 

o,  short 

7t 

Pi 

n 

P 

P 

Rho 

p 

r 

a  $ 

Sigma 

s 

s 

t 

Tau 

T 

t 

D 

Upsilon 

T 

u 

* 

Phi 

ph 

X 

Chi 

X 

ch 

+ 

Psi 

•qr 

ps 

u 

Omega 

a 

o,  long 

CHAPTER  III. 

ON  THE  PROPRIETY  OF  ADOPTING  A  MORE  NATURAL  AR¬ 
RANGEMENT  AND  DELINEATION  OF  THE  STARRY  GROUPS. 

The  figures  of  the  celestial  constellations  to  which  we  have 
now  adverted  are  still  depicted  in  our  celestial  globes  and 
planispheres,  and  present,  in  my  opinion,  a  very  awkward  and 
unnatural  representation  of  the  starry  heavens.  It  is  rather  a 
strange  circumstance,  that  for  a  period  of  more  than  two  thou¬ 
sand  years  the  firmament  has  been  contemplated,  and  the  ar¬ 
rangements  of  the  bodies  it  contains  studied,  through  the  me¬ 
dium  of  bears,  serpents,  lizards,  rams,  whales,  centaurs,  dol¬ 
phins,  flying  horses,  three-headed  dogs,  hydras,  dragons,  and 
many  other  grotesque  and  incongruous  figures.  The  sublime 
wonders  of  the  evening  sky  have  thus  been  associated  with  a 
group  of  mean,  ridiculous,  and  imaginary  objects,  of  which  we 
have  scarcely  any  prototype  in  nature,  and  in  which  there  is 
not  the  least  shadow  of  a  resemblance  to  the  objects  they  are 
intended  to  represent.  When  the  young  student  of  astronomy 
wishes  to  distinguish  particular  assemblages  of  suns  and  sys¬ 
tems  of  worlds,  he  is  required  to  connect  them  in  his  imagina¬ 
tion  with  wolves,  lions,  snakes,  and  numerous  fantastical 
figures,  which  are  bent  and  twisted  into  unnatural  shapes, 
which  have  as  little  resemblance  to  the  objects  in  the  heavens 


OF  THE  STARS. 


41 


as  the  gloom  of  midnight  to  the  splendours  of  the  meridian 
sun.  Such  representations  have  a  tendency  to  convey  to  juve¬ 
nile  minds  a  mean  idea  of  the  most  august  bodies  in  nature, 
and  of  the  ample  spaces  which  surround  them,  and  in  which 
they  perform  their  revolutions. 

The  terms  used  in  any  science,  the  mode  of  communicat¬ 
ing  its  instructions,  and  the  delineations  which  such  instruc¬ 
tions  require,  ought  undoubtedly  to  be  accommodated  to  the 
discoveries  which  have  been  made  in  the  course  of  ages,  and 
to  the  present  state  and  objects  of  that  science;  and  unless  we 
can  shew  that  the  terms  and  figures  to  which  I  allude  are  the 
best  calculated  to  the  present  state  and  objects  of  astronomical 
science,  and  fitted  to  assist  the  student  in  forming  natural  and 
correct  ideas  of  the  arrangement  of  the  celestial  orbs,  it  is  ex¬ 
pedient  that  some  change  and  improvement  in  this  respect 
should  be  adopted,  in  accordance  with  the  new  modifications 
and  arrangements  which  have  been  introduced  into  other  de¬ 
partments  of  science.  The  propriety  of  introducing  some 
changes  in  delineating  the  constellations,  and  in  their  nomen¬ 
clature  may  perhaps  appear  from  the  following  considera¬ 
tions  : — 

1.  The  natural  and  hieroglyphic  figures  now  in  use  have  no 
resemblance  to  the  groups  of  stars  they  are  intended  to  repre¬ 
sent.  What  resemblance,  for  example,  exists  between  an  eagle, 
a  wolf,  a  centaur,  a  flying-fish,  or  Hercules  with  his  club — and 
the  constellations  which  bear  their  names  and  are  attempted 
to  be  delineated  by  their  figures  ?  Even  when  imagination 
has  stretched  itself  to  the  utmost  in  order  to  fancy  a  resem¬ 
blance,  it  is  obliged  to  represent  such  creatures  in  the  most 
unnatural  positions ;  and  after  all,  it  is  found  impossible  to 
bend  and  twist  their  wings,  and  legs,  and  tails,  and  claws,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  take  in  all  the  stars  in  the  group,  some 
pretty  conspicuous  ones  being  still  left  unformed  in  the  inter¬ 
mediate  spaces.  Besides,  the  discovery  of  new  stars  by  the 
telescope  has  now  completely  deranged  the  figures  of  the  an¬ 
cient  constellations  ;  so  that  however  much  the  legs,  arms,  and 
feet  of  the  figures  may  be  twisted,  they  cannot  be  made  to  co¬ 
incide  with  hundreds  of  stars  which  are  known  to  exist.  The 
only  constellations  which  may  be  said  to  bear  a  very  rude  re¬ 
semblance  to  the  natural  figures  are  Orion  and  Ursa  Major; 
but  even  in  these  the  resemblance  is  very  distant.  Hence 
what  is  commonly  called  a  bear  is  also  conceived  to  resemble 
a  plough  and  a  wagon ,  and  is,  by  the  vulgar,  distinguished  by 
these  names.  Hence,  also,  different  nations  represent  the 
same  constellation  by  different  figures  : — thus,  instead  of  our 

4* 


4 2  ABSURD  REPRESENTATIONS  OF  THE  HEAVENS. 


hieroglyphic  delineations,  the  Hindoos  have  bespattered  the 
firmament  with  bedsteads,  dogs’  tails,  ear-rings,  couches, 
elephants’  teeth,  eats’  claws,  red  saffron,  childrens’  pencils, 
lions’  tails,  festoons,  wheels,  razors,  pieces  of  coral,  pearls, 
and  other  whimsical  objects  equally  appropriate.* 

In  a  judicious  comparison  of  the  figures  of  the  different 
clusters  of  stars  with  any  other  object,  for  the  purpose  of  a 
name  or  reference,  the  figure  of  the  particular  cluster  ought 
first  to  be  accurately  considered,  and  then  an  object,  having 
as  near  a  relation  to  it  as  possible,  should  be  fixed  upon  as  its 
representation.  But  an  order  exactly  the  reverse  of  this  seems 
to  have  been  adopted  by  the  ancients  in  their  arrangement 
and  nomenclature  of  the  constellations.  They  first  fixed  upon 
the  heroes,  animals,  and  mythological  figures  which  they  in¬ 
tended  to  place  in  the  celestial  vault ;  and  then  attempted,  if 
possible,  to  bend  the  clusters  of  stars  to  correspond  with  them 
— a  most  absurd,  unscientific,  and  unnatural  procedure.  And 
shall  all  succeeding  astronomers  in  every  nation  tacitly  give 
their  approbation  of  such  rude  and  injudicious  arrangements, 
as  if  they  were  unqualified  for  forming  a  more  scientific  and 
definite  outline  of  the  sublime  spaces  of  the  firmament  ? 

2.  The  figures  now  in  use  tend  to  convey  a  mean  idea  of 
the  objects  they  are  intended  to  represent.  When  the  stars 
were  considered  as  merely  a  number  of  tapers  or  studs  fixed 
in  the  vault  of  heaven,  solely  for  the  purpose  of  shedding  a 
few  glimmering  rays  on  the  earth  and  adorning  the  canopy  of 
our  habitation,  it  might  not  appear  quite  so  incongruous  to  re¬ 
present  their  different  groups  by  u  corruptible  men,  and  birds, 
and  four-footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things.”  But  now  that 
the  astronomer  views  the  stars  as  so  many  suns  and  systems 
of  worlds,  dispersed  through  the  immensity  of  space,  the  as¬ 
sociation  of  such  august  objects  with  representations  so  silly 
and  whimsical  as  the  mythological  figures  delineated  on  our 
globes,  produces  not  only  a  ludicrous  effect  by  the  greatness 
of  the  contrast,  but,  for  the  same  reason,  tends  to  lessen  the 
idea  of  sublimity  which  naturally  strikes  the  mind  on  the 
contemplation  of  such  a  stupendous  scene.  Every  one  knows 
how  much  things  great  and  noble  are  debased  by  being  placed 
in  intimate  connexion  with  little  and  ignoble  objects,  and 
must  feel  the  force  of  this  association  in  the  following  lines 
of  Hudibras : — 

*  See  “Asiatic  Researches,”  Vol.  ii.  Art.  16 — Antiquity  of  the  Indian 
Zodiac. 


GROTESQUE  ASSOCIATIONS. 


43 


“  And  now  had  Phoebus  in  the  lap 
Of  Thetis  taken  out  his  nap  ; 

And,  like  a  lobster  boil’d,  the  morn, 
From  black  to  red  began  to  turn.” 


Again — 

“  Cardan  believed  great  states  depend 
Upon  the  tip  of  the  Bear’s  tail’s  end  ; 

That  as  she  whisk’d  it  towards  the  sun, 

Strew’d  mighty  empires  up  and  down.” 

And  again — 

“  Who  made  the  Balance ,  and  whence  came 
The  Bull,  the  Lion,  and  the  Bam  ? 

Did  not  we  here  the  Argo  rig  ? 

Make  Berenice’s  Periwig? 

Whose  livery  does  the  Coachman  wear  ? 

Or  who  made  Cassiopeia' s  chair  ! 

And  therefore  as  they  came  from  hence, 

With  us  may  hold  intelligence.” 

Such  an  effect  the  celestial  hieroglyphics  have  a  tendency 
to  produce,  when  placed  in  association  with  the  august  objects 
of  the  sky. 

3.  They  tend  to  lead  us  back  to  the  dark  and  rude  ages  of 
the  world,  and  to  familiarize  our  minds  to  those  crude,  chi¬ 
merical,  and  absurd  conceptions  which  ought  now  to  descend 
into  oblivion.  The  signs  of  the  zodiac  and  most  of  the  other 
constellations  were  invented  by  the  Egyptians  or  Chaldeans 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  some  of  their  rude  and  barbarous 
heroes,  to  assist  them  in  their  absurd  and  idolatrous  worship, 
or  to  serve  the  foolish  and  impious  pretensions  of  astrology. 
In  neither  of  these  respects  can  the  celestial  hieroglyphics  be 
interesting  or  instructive  to  the  modern  student  of  astronomi¬ 
cal  science ;  but  they  are,  in  almost  every  point  of  view,  asso¬ 
ciated  with  opinions,  practices,  and  representations,  which  de¬ 
serve  the  most  marked  reprobation :  they  also  distract  the 
attention  by  turning  it  aside  from  the  direct  objects  of  the 
science  to  the  investigation  of  their  fabulous  history.  How 
ridiculous  the  story  of  Calisto  and  her  son  Arces,  whom  the 
rage  of  Juno  turned  into  bears,  which  now  circulate  about  the 
north  pole ! — the  story  of  Medusa,  whose  golden  hair  Minerva 
turned  into  snakes,  and  of  the  winged  horse  which  sprung 
from  the  blood  which  gushed  out  in  striking  off  Medusa’s 
head! — the  story  of  Orion,  who  was  produced  from  the  hide 
of  an  ox  moistened  with  wine ! — the  story  of  the  Dragon 
which  guarded  the  golden  apples  in  the  garden  of  the  Hespe- 


44 


FABULOUS  HISTORIES. 


rides,  and  was  taken  up  to  heaven  and  made  a  constellation  on 
account  of  his  faithful  services  !- — the  story  of  Andromeda,  of 
the  Swan,  of  Perseus,  and  a  hundred  others  of  a  similar  de¬ 
scription  ! 

Such  is  the  heaven  of  the  pagans — a  common  receptacle  of 
all  ranks  of  creatures,  real  and  imaginary,  without  distinction 
or  order ;  a  wild  miscellany  of  every  thing  that  is  false,  gro¬ 
tesque,  and  chimerical.  Such  fantastical  groups,  which  oc¬ 
cupy  the  u  houses  of  the  Zodiac,”  and  other  compartments  of 
the  sky,  may  comport  with  the  degrading  arts  of  the  astrolo¬ 
ger,  but  they  are  not  only  incompetent  to  the  purposes,  but 
completely  repugnant  to  the  noble  elevation  of  modern  astro¬ 
nomical  science.  How  incongruous,  then,  is  it  that  such  re¬ 
presentations,  the  wildest  hallucinations  of  the  human  mind, 
should  be  blazoned  in  such  brilliant  colours  upon  our  globes, 
and  that  a  considerable  portion  of  our  astronomical  treatises 
should  be  occupied  in  detailing  their  mythological  history  ? 
Because  a  few  shepherds  in  the  plains  of  Babylon,  or  on  the 
banks  of  the  Nile,  arranged  and  delineated  the  heavens  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  first  crude  conceptions  which  arose  in  their 
minds,  are  these  chimerical  representations  to  guide  the  astro¬ 
nomers  of  every  nation,  and  throughout  all  succeeding  gene¬ 
rations  ?  It  becomes  the  astronomers  of  the  present  day  to 
consider,  whether  they  intend  to  transmit  to  the  enlightened 
generations  of  the  twentieth  or  thirtieth  centuries  the  sublime 
discoveries  of  modern  times,  which  have  transformed  the  hea¬ 
vens  into  an  immense  assemblage  of  suns  and  worlds, — incor¬ 
porated  and  disfigured  with  hydras,  gorgons,  flying  horses, 
three-headed  dogs,  and  other  w  dire  chimeras  or  whether 
they  might  not  be  as  well  qualified  as  the  shepherds  of  Chal¬ 
dea  to  reduce  the  starry  groups,  in  the  concave  of  the  firma¬ 
ment,  to  a  more  natural,  simple,  and  scientific  arrangement. 

4.  The  constellations,  as  presently  depicted  on  our  globes 
and  planispheres,  convey  an  unnatural  and  complex  represen¬ 
tation  of  the  heavens,  which  tends  to  confuse  the  imagination 
of  the  juvenile  student.  On  some  celestial  globes  which  1 
have  inspected,  the  natural  and  hieroglyphic  figures  are  so 
prominently  engraved,  and  the  colours  with  which  they  are 
bespattered  so  deep  and  vivid,  that  the  stars  appeared  not  only 
as  a  secondary  object,  but  were  almost  invisible,  except  on  a 
very  minute  inspection.  The  animals  were  so  nicely  drawn, 
and  exhibited  such  a  glare  of  variegated  colours,  that  the 
sphere  appeared  more  like  a  young  miss’s  plaything  than  a 
delineation  of  the  starry  heavens.  It  seemed  as  if  the  engraver 
had  been  afraid  lest  his  pretty  little  dogs,  and  serpents,  and 


NEW  ARRANGEMENT  OF  THE  STARS  EXPEDIENT.  45 

scorpions,  and  flying-horses,  and  crabs,  and  lizards,  should 
have  been  disfigured  by  the  radiated  groups  of  stars  which 
spotted  the  pretty  creatures  ;  and  therefore  he  threw  them 
into  the  shade,  in  order  that  the  artificial  globe,  which  a  late 
philosopher  calls  u  a  philosophic  toy,”  might  prove  nothing 
more  to  the  fair  one,  who  occasionally  twirled  it  round  its 
axis,  than  a  beautifully-coloured  ball  to  fill  up  a  niche  in  her 
parlour  or  bed-room.  The  same  thing  appears  in  many  of 
our  planispheres  of  the  heavens,  on  the  first  opening  of  which 
one  would  imagine  he  was  about  to  inspect  the  figures  con¬ 
nected  with  the  natural  history  of  animals,  or  the  fantastical 
representations  illustrative  of  the  system  of  pagan  mythology. 
Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  utility  of  such  delineations,  it  is 
evident  they  present  a  very  awkward  and  unnatural  represen¬ 
tation  of  the  beautiful  and  variegated  scenery  of  a  starry  sky ; 
and  hence  it  is  that  a  young  person  who  wishes  to  acquire  a 
general  knowledge  of  the  positions  of  the  principal  stars  finds 
it  extremely  difficult  to  recognise  them  by  our  present  maps 
and  planispheres,  on  account  of  their  being  so  much  inter¬ 
woven  with  extraneous  objects,  and,  on  this  account,  presenting 
appearances  so  very  different  from  what  they  do  in  the  hea¬ 
vens. 

For  these  and  many  other  reasons,  it  appears  expedient 
that  some  change  or  modification  should  be  adopted  in  the 
arrangement  and  delineation  of  the  celestial  orbs.  Were  any 
scheme  of  this  kind  attempted,  it  would  be  proper  to  proceed 
on  the  following  principle,  among  others — namely,  to  give 
names  to  the  starry  groups  from  objects  which  hear  the  near¬ 
est  resemblance  to  the  actual  figures  which  appear  in  the  hea¬ 
vens.  I  shall  not  presume,  at  present,  to  determine  what  are 
the  particular  objects  which  might  be  selected  for  representing 
the  constellations ;  as  it  would  require  a  combination  of  as¬ 
tronomers  to  enter  particularly  into  the  discussion.  It  is 
evident,  however,  that  a  number  of  clusters  might  be  reduced 
to  mathematical  figures  and  diagrams ;  and  in  so  far  as  these 
were  found  to  resemble  the  starry  groups,  they  would  form  a 
natural  representation.  For  there  actually  appear  in  the  hea¬ 
vens — triangles,  squares,  parallelograms,  pentagons,  crosses, 
trapeziums,  perpendicular  and  parallel  lines,  and  various  com¬ 
binations  of  geometrical  schemes,  some  of  which  might  be 
selected  for  the  purpose  proposed.  It  would  be  expedient 
that  as  many  as  possible  of  the  old  constellations  should  be 
preserved  entire ;  such  as  Orion,  Ursa  Major,  and  others  ;  and 
that  those  vjhich  behoved  to  be  somewhat  deranged  should 
be  so  divided  as  that  two  or  more  of  the  new-formed  constel- 


46  PROPOSED  IMPROVEMENTS  IN  GLOBES,  ETC. 

lations  should  exactly  correspond  to  one  of  the  old,  and  vice 
versa. 

To  any  proposal  of  this  kind,  however,  I  am  aware  that 
many  objections  would  be  raised,  particularly  that  it  would 
introduce  confusion  into  the  science  of  astronomy,  especially 
when  references  are  made  to  ancient  catalogues  and  observations. 
It  is  well  known  however  that  a  similar  difficulty  has  been  over¬ 
come  in  reference  to  the  science  of  chemistry.  The  new  no¬ 
menclature,  which  was  intended  to  express  the  nature  of  the 
substance  by  the  name  which  is  attached  to  it,  though  at  first 
scouted  by  many  eminent  chemists  and  philosophers,  is  now 
universally  adopted,  and  has  introduced  both  simplicity  and 
precision  into  the  science.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  depart¬ 
ments  of  geology,  botany,  zoology,  mineralogy,  and  meteorolo¬ 
gy.  The  principle  now  proposed  in  reference  to  the  constella¬ 
tions  is  materially  the  same  as  that  which  led  to  the  adoption  of 
a  new  chemical  nomenclature ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  incon¬ 
veniences  attending  a  new  set  of  terms,  it  may  be  observed,  in 
the  words  of  M.  Bergman,  that  u  those  who  are  already 
possessed  of  knowledge  cannot  be  deprived  of  it  by  new 
terms ;  and  those  who  have  their  knowledge  to  acquire  will 
be  enabled,  by  an  improvement  in  the  language  of  the  science, 
to  acquire  it  sooner.” 

The  opposition,  however,  which  is  generally  made  to  evejy 
innovation,  whether  in  science  or  in  religion,  the  high  respect 
in  which  every  thing  is  held  which  has  the  sanction  of  anti¬ 
quity,  the  difficulty  of  forming  such  an  arrangement  as  would 
combine  simplicity  with  accuracy,  and  meet  the  approbation 
of  astronomers,  will  probably  postpone  the  attempt  to  some 
distant  period.  I  would  therefore  propose,  in  the  mean  time, 
as  matters  now  stand,  one  or  other  of  the  following  plans  for 
adoption  : — 1.  That  the  stars  be  depicted  on  celestial  globes 
and  planispheres  in  their  true  positions,  and  apparent  magni¬ 
tudes,  without  being  connected  with  any  hieroglyphic  deli¬ 
neations  ;  the  different  constellations  still  retaining  their  for¬ 
mer  names.  By  this  plan,  the  different  clusters,  not  being 
encumbered  and  buried,  as  it  were,  in  a  medley  of  grotesque 
and  extraneous  representations,  would  appear  in  their  natural 
simplicity,  without  distortion  and  confusion,  so  that  the  globe, 
being  rectified  to  any  particular  position  of  the  heavens,  would 
appear  a  natural  as  well  as  accurate  representation  of  the  cor¬ 
responding  orbs  of  the  firmament.  To  distinguish  the  bounda¬ 
ries  of  the  constellations,  a  dotted  line  might  be  drawn  around 
them,  and  each  of  them  receive  a  very  slight  tint  of  colouring, 
so  that  their  shape  and  limits  may  be  distinguished  at  a  glance. 


REPRESENTATION  OF  ORION.  47 

Or,  2.  Instead  of  engraving  the  stars  on  a  white  ground,  as  is 
always  done  on  the  globes,  let  them  be  engraved  on  a  black 
or  a  dark-blue  ground,  so  that  the  several  stars  may  appear  as 
so  many  white  specks,  varying  in  size  according  to  their  appa¬ 
rent  magnitudes,  with  a  white  border  (which  might  be  coloured 
if  deemed  expedient)  around  each  constellation,  to  mark  its 
boundaries.  On  this  plan  the  principal  stars  in  the  constella¬ 
tion  Orion ,  with  its  boundary,  would  appear  nearly  as  repre¬ 
sented  in  the  following  cut. 

Fig.  4. 

North. 


This  mode  of  delineation  would  exhibit  the  most  natural 
representation  which  can  be  made,  on  a  convex  surface,  of  dp® 


48 


SIR  j.  herschel’s  opinions. 


appearance  of  the  starry  sky.  I  am  fully  persuaded  that 
globes,  with  either  of  these  modes  of  delineation,  particularly 
the  last,  would  be  prized  by  a  numerous  class  of  individuals ; 
as  I  have  seldom  conversed  with  any  person  on  this  subject 
who  would  not  have  preferred  such  a  simple  and  natural  de¬ 
lineation  to  those  which  are  bespattered  with  the  mythologi¬ 
cal  figures.  Should  it,  however,  be  deemed  necessary,  in 
cases  of  particular  and  minute  reference,  to  have  globes  and 
planispheres  on  the  common  plan,  a  number  of  delineations  of 
both  kinds  might  be  engraved  to  suit  the  taste  of  different  in¬ 
dividuals  ;  and  those  to  whom  money  is  no  great  object 
would  furnish  themselves  with  one  of  each  description,  so 
that  the  one  globe  would  prove  a  mutual  assistance  to  the 
other.* 

That  the  opinions  I  have  now  expressed  on  this  subject 
are  not  altogether  singular  will  appear  from  the  following 
extract  from  Sir  J.  Herschel’s  44  Astronomy,”  p.  162.  44  Of 

course  we  do  not  here  speak  of  those  uncouth  figures  and 
outlines  of  men  and  monsters  which  are  usually  scribbled 
over  celestial  globes  and  maps,  in  a  rude  and  barbarous  way, 
to  enable  us  to  talk  of  groups  of  stars,  or  districts  in  the 
heavens,  by  names  which,  though  absurd  or  puerile  in  their 
origin,  it  would  be  difficult  to  dislodge  them.  In  so  far  as 
they  have  really  any  slight  resemblance  to  the  figures  called 
up  in  imagination  by  a  view  of  the  more  splendid  4  constella¬ 
tions,’  they  have  a  certain  convenience ;  but  as  they  are  other¬ 
wise  entirely  arbitrary,  and  correspond  to  no  natural  sub¬ 
divisions  or  groupings  of  the  stars,  astronomers  treat  them 
lightly,  or  altogether  disregard  them,  except  for  briefly  naming 
particular  stars,  as  a  Leonis,  |3  Scorpio,  See.,  by  letters  of  the 
Greek  alphabet  attached  to  them.”  And  again, — 44  This  dis¬ 
regard  is  neither  supercilious  nor  causeless.  The  constellations 
seem  to  have  been  almost  purposely  named  and  delineated 
to  cause  as  much  confusion  and  inconvenience  as  possible. 
Innumerable  snakes  twine  through  long  and  contorted  areas 
of  the  heavens,  where  no  memory  can  follow  them ;  bears, 
lions,  and  fishes,  large  and  small,  northern  and  southern,  con¬ 
fuse  all  nomenclature,  &c.  A  better  system  of  constellations 
might  have  been  a  material  help  as  an  artificial  memory.”f 

*  The  above  remarks  are  abridged  from  two  papers  on  this  subject, 
which  the  author  communicated  twenty  years  ago  to  the  London  “Month¬ 
ly  Magazine”  for  October  1818,  and  January  1819,  Vol.  46,  pp.  201,  and 
500. 

t  Since  the  above  was  written  in  April,  1838,  I  am  happy  to  learn  that 
the  “  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science”  has  had  its 
attention  directed  to  this  subject.  Atthe  meeting  at  Newcastle  in  August 


MEASURES  OF  DISTANCE. 


49 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ON  THE  DISTANCES  OF  THE  STARS. 

To  measure  the  length  and  breadth  of  an  extensive  king¬ 
dom,  and  to  compute  its  dimensions,  or  to  determine  the 
distances  between  two  large  islands  or  continents,  was  for¬ 
merly  reckoned  an  achievement  of  considerable  magnitude ; 
but  to  measure  the  whole  earth,  to  compute  its  area,  and  to 
determine  its  exact  figure  and  magnitude,  were  considered  as 
the  most  astonishing  enterprises  ever  attempted  by  man,  and 
almost  beyond  the  reach  of  the  powers  with  which  he  is 
endowed.  Confined  to  a  small  spot  in  the  world  in  which  he 
dwells,  having  no  scale  of  measurement,  in  the  first  instance, 
but  his  own  dimensions,  or  the  length  of  a  rod  or  chain 
formed  from  these  dimensions,  how  can  he  measure  spaces 
hundreds  of  times  greater  than  the  extent  of  his  whole  visible 
horizon  ?  how  can  he  compute  the  distance  and  dimensions 
of  places  which  he  has  never  visited,  and  some  of  which 
he  never  can  visit,  and  embrace  the  whole  amplitude  of  a 
world  which  has  never  been  thoroughly  explored  ?  The 
height  of  his  body  is  but  a  fathom,  and  the  length  of  his 
chain  but  a  score  of  fathoms,  and  such  measures  dwindle  into 
mere  points  when  compared  with  the  dimensions  of  the  earth. 
Hence  it  happened  that  many  ages  elapsed  before  the  figure 
and  dimensions  of  the  world  in  which  we  dwell  were  nearly 
ascertained.  The  powers  of  the  human  mind,  however,  when 
called  into  action  and  properly  exercised,  are  not  only  capable 
of  such  enterprises,  but  adequate  to  the  performance  of  still  more 
elevated  achievements.  When  the  mind  of  man  is  determined 

1838,  it  was  resolved,  “  That  it  is  desirable  that  a  revision  of  the  nomen¬ 
clature  of  the  stars  should  be  made,  with  a  view  to  ascertain,  whether  or 
not  a  more  correct  distribution  of  them  among  the  present  constellations, 
or  such  other  constellations  as  it  may  be  considered  desirable  to  adopt, 
may  be  formed.”  At  the  meeting  at  Birmingham,  August,  1839,  the 
committee  appointed  to  report  on  this  subject  stated,  “  That  some  pro¬ 
gress  has  been  made  in  reforming  the  nomenclature  of  the  northern  con¬ 
stellations  ;  and  that  the  stars  in  the  southern  have  been  commenced 
laying  down  on  a  planisphere,  according  to  their  observed  actual  magni¬ 
tudes,  for  the  purpose  of  grouping  them  in  a  more  convenient  and  advan¬ 
tageous  manner.”  It  is  hoped,  therefore,  that  we  shall  soon  be  presented 
with  an  arrangement  and  nomenclature  of  the  starry  groups,  accordant 
with  the  sublime  conceptions  and  discoveries  of  modern  astronomy,  and 
which  shall  present,  on  our  globes  and  planispheres,  a  more  perspicuous 
and  natural  representation  of  the  heavens. 

Vol.  VIII.  5 


50 


MEASURES  OF  DISTANCE. 


on  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  bent  upon  improvement, 
difficulties,  however  great,  only  serve  as  incitements  to  action 
and  perseverance,  and  to  stimulate  his  energies  to  their  highest 
pitch  of  exertion.  He  multiplies  small  measures  till  he  arrive 
at  greater;  he  combines  units  into  tens,  tens  into  hundreds, 
hundreds  into  thousands,  and  thousands  into  millions.  He 
combines  lines  into  angles,  angles  into  triangles  ;  compares 
triangles,  squares,  and  circles  together ;  ascertains  their  pecu¬ 
liar  properties  and  relations ;  and,  from  the  conclusions  he 
deduces,  constructs  instruments  and  ascertains  principles 
which  enable  him  not  only  to  measure  the  dimensions  of  this 
lower  world,  but  the  magnitudes  and  distances  of  the  globes 
which  roll  around  him  in  the  heavens. 

There  is  no  saying  at  what  point  the  human  faculties  will 
stop  when  once  they  are  aroused  to  active  operation,  and 
stimulated  to  exert  all  their  energies.  We  have  not  only 
ascertained  the  bulk  of  the  terraqueous  globe,  its  spheroidal 
figure,  its  diurnal  and  annual  motions,  and  the  relation  in 
which  it  stands  to  other  bodies  in  the  universe,  but  we  have 
determined  the  dimensions  of  the  solar  system,  and  the  dis¬ 
tances  and  magnitudes  of  most  of  the  bodies  it  contains,  so 
that  we  can  now  speak  with  as  much  certainty  of  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  the  sun,  or  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  as  we  can  do  of 
the  distance  of  London  from  Paris,  or  of  the  distances  of  any 
two  places  on  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  is  an  achieve¬ 
ment  which  at  first  view  might  have  appeared  beyond  the 
power  of  human  genius  to  accomplish ;  but  by  the  un¬ 
wearied  observations  of  modern  astronomers,  and  the  appli¬ 
cation  of  mathematical  principles  to  such  observations,  they 
have  been  enabled  to  trace  the  exact  movements  of  the  ma¬ 
chinery  which  is  in  operation  around  us,  and  to  determine 
with  precision  the  relative  distance  and  position  of  every 
planet  within  the  system  of  the  sun.  There  are  limits,  how¬ 
ever,  beyond  which  it  is  difficult  for  the  human  faculties  to 
penetrate.  The  planetary  system  comprises  an  area  so  vast 
that  imagination  is  almost  lost  in  the  conception.  A  circle 
drawn  uround  its  circumference  would  measure  more  than 
eleven  thousand  millions  of  miles ;  and  a  body  moving  at  the 
rate  of  thirty  miles  an  hour  would  require  above  forty-two 
thousand  years  to  complete  the  circuit ;  still  these  vast  dimen¬ 
sions  are  within  the  limits  of  measurable  distance.  But 
when  we  attempt  to  pass  beyond  the  boundaries  of  this  sys¬ 
tem  into  the  illimitable  spaces  which  lie  beyond,  all  our  usual 
modes  of  computation  begin  to  fail,  and  the  mind  is  over¬ 
powered  and  bewildered  amidst  boundless  space,  and  the 


ANNUAL  PARALLAX. 


51 


multiplicity  of  orbs  which  fill  the  regions  of  immensity. 
We  can  tell  that  some  of  the  nearest  of  these  orbs  are  not 
within  a  certain  distance,  but  how  far  they  may  lie  beyond  it 
the  most  expert  astronomer  has  never  yet  been  able  to  com¬ 
pute. 

The  principal  mode  by  which  the  distance  of  the  fixed 
stars  has  been  attempted  to  be  determined  is  by  endeavouring 
to  ascertain  whether  any  of  them  have  an  annual  parallax. 

I  have  already  explained  the  mode  by  which  the  distances  of 
the  sun,  moon,  and  planets  is  determined  by  means  of  the 
horizontal  parallax ,  or  the  angle  under  which  the  earth’s  semi¬ 
diameter  is  seen  at  any  of  these  bodies.*  But  such  a  mode 
is  altogether  inapplicable  to  the  fixed  stars,  whose  distance 
from  the  earth  is  so  great  that  the  horizontal  parallax  is  quite 
imperceptible.  Astronomers  have  therefore  attempted  to  find 
a  parallax  by  using  the  whole  diameter  of  the  earth’s  annual 
orbit  as  a  base  line , — namely,  one  hundred  and  ninety  millions 
of  miles, — and  endeavouring  to  ascertain  whether  any  of  the 
fixed  stars  appear  to  shift  their  position  when  viewed  from 
the  opposite  extremities  of  this  line.  The  nature  and  mode 
of  this  investigation  will  appear  from  the  following  explana¬ 
tions  : — 

The  axis  of  the  earth  extended,  being  carried  parallel  to 
itself  during  its  annual  revolution  round  the  sun,  describes  a 
circle  in  the  sphere  of  the  fixed  stars  equal  to  the  orbit  of  the 
earth.  Thus,  (fig.  5,)  let  A  B  CD  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth, 
S  the  sun,  the  dotted  lines  the  axis  of  the  earth  extended ; 
this  axis,  when  the  earth  is  at  A,  points  at  a  in  the  sphere  of 
the  heavens  ;  when  the  earth  is  at  j B,  it  points  at  b  ;  when  at 
C,  it  points  at  c  ;  and  when  at  J9,  it  points  at  d  ;  so  that  in 
the  course  of  a  year  it  describes  the  circle  abed  in  the 
sphere  of  the  heavens,  equal  to  the  circle  A  BCD.  But 
although  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  consequently  the  circle 
a  b  c  d,  be  immensely  large,  no  less  than  many  millions  of 
miles  in  diameter,  yet  it  is  but  a  point  in  comparison  of  the 
boundless  sphere  of  the  heavens.  The  angle  under  which  it 
appears  to  an  inhabitant  of  the  earth  is  insensible  by  any 
instruments  or  observations  that  have  hitherto  been  made, 
and  therefore  the  celestial  poles  appear  in  the  same  points  of 
the  heavens  during  the  whole  of  the  earth’s  annual  course. 
The  star  H  is  nearer  the  point  a  than  it  is  to  the  point  c  by 
the  whole  length  of  the  line  a  c,  yet  if  this  line  a  c,  great  as 
it  is  when  viewed  from  the  earth,  should  occupy  no  sensible 


*  “  Celestial  Scenery,”  pp,  280—298. 


52 


ANNUAL  PARALLAXES. 


space  in  the  sphere  of  the  heavens,  the  star  will  appear  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  pole  throughout  every  portion  of  the 
annual  revolution,  and  consequently  will  have  no  parallax, — 
which  is  found  to  be  the  fact. 

If  the  annual  parallax  of  a  fixed  star  were  sensible,  the  star 
would  appear  to  change  its  place  so  as  to  describe  a  small 
ellipsis  in  the  sphere  of  the  heavens  in  the  course  of  a  year, 
or  an  annual  revolution  of  the  earth.  Thus,  let  G  E  F  I 
(fig.  6)  be  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  K  the  star  to  be  ob¬ 
served, — if  we  imagine  a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  from  the 
earth  at  G  through  the  star  to  a  point  in  the  heavens,  as  at  i, 
that  visual  line  G  i  being  carried  along  with  the  earth  in  its 
annual  motion,  will  describe  the  ellipse  h  n  i  ;  in  other  words, 
the  motion  of  the  earth  round  its  orbit  G  E  F  I  will  make 


Fig.  5.  Fig.  6. 


ANNUAL  PARALLAXES. 


53 


the  star  appear  to  go  round  the  ellipse  h  n  i.  If  the  star  K 
were  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,  the  ellipse  it  described  would 
have  the  same  eccentricity  as  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  con¬ 
sequently  would  differ  very  little  from  a  circle  ;  if  it  were 
at  any  distance  from  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic,*  the  greater  that 
distance,  the  more  oblong  would  be  the  ellipse.  If  the  star 
were  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  the  ellipse  would  become  a 
straight  line,  as  i  A,  in  which  the  star  would  appear  to  move 
one-half  of  the  year  according  to  the  order  of  the  signs,  and 
contrary  to  the  order  of  the  signs  during  the  other  half, — ■ 
somewhat  similar  to  the  appearance  which  the  moons  of 
Jupiter  present  when  moving  between  the  opposite  points  of 
their  orbits.  If  therefore  the  stars  were  at  a  moderate  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  earth,  so  that  the  diameter  of  the  earth’s  orbit, 
G  F,  bore  a  sensible  proportion  to  that  distance,  the  star 
would  be  found  at  one  time  of  the  year,  suppose  the  month 
of  December,  at  the  point  i,  and  at  the  opposite  season,  in  the 
month  of  June,  at  the  point  A  ;  and  if  the  angle  i  K  A ,  which 
is  equal  to  the  angle  G  K  F,  could  be  found,  it  would  con¬ 
stitute  what  is  termed  the  annual  parallax ;  and  having  ob¬ 
tained  this  parallax,  and  knowing  the  extent  of  the  base  line 
G  F,  or  the  diameter  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  the  distance  of  the 
stars  whose  parallax  was  ascertained  could  then  be  determined 
by  an  easy  process  in  trigonometry ;  for  as  radius  :  is  to  the 
sine  of  the  angle  i  K  A  =  GKF :  :  so  is  the  diameter  of  the 
orbit  of  the  earth,  190,000,000  of  miles  :  to  a  fourth  number, 
which  would  express  the  distance  of  the  particular  stars  from 
our  globe. 

But  this  angle,  in  respect  to  any  of  the  stars,  has  never  yet 
been  ascertained ;  although  astronomers  for  more  than  a  cen¬ 
tury  past  have  used  the  most  accurate  instruments  which 
ingenuity  could  contrive,  and  the  most  unwearied  observations 
in  order  to  determine  it. 

Galileo  appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  thought  of  try¬ 
ing  whether  the  annual  parallax  of  the  stars  were  discover¬ 
able.  Taking  for  granted  that  the  stars  are  placed  at  different 
distances  from  the  earth,  and  that  those  stars  which  are  nearest 
will  appear  the  largest,  he  suggested  that,  by  observing  with 
a  telescope  two  stars  very  near  each  other,  one  of  the  greatest 
and  the  other  of  the  least  magnitude,  their  apparent  distance 


*  The  pole  of  the  ellipse  is  that  point  in  the  heavens  which  is  farthest 
distant  from  the  plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  or  90°  from  every  part  of  it, 
as  the  north  pole  of  the  earth  is  the  point  distant  90°  from  the  equator 
The  pole  of  any  circle  is  a  point  on  the  surface  of  the  sphere  90°  distant 
from  every  part  of  that  circle  of  which  it  is  the  pole. 

5* 


54 


MODES  OF  DISCOVERING 


from  each  other  might  perhaps  be  found  to  vary  as  they  were 
viewed  from  different  parts  of  the  earth’s  orbit  at  different 
times  of  the  year ;  but  no  change  of  position  whatever  was 
at  that  period  perceived. 

If  any  change  of  this  kind  were  perceptible,  it  behoved  to 
be  a  change  either  in  the  longitude  or  latitude  of  the  stars 
fixed  upon  as  the  subject  of  observation.  These  are  found, 
not  directly,  but  by  first  determining  their  declination  and 
right  ascension.  The  declination  of  a  star  is  found  by  taking 
its  meridian  altitude,  and  subtracting  the  height  of  the  equa¬ 
tor  ;  the  right  ascension  is  found  by  the  time  of  its  coming 
to  the  meridian.*  We  have  thus  two  methods  pointed  out  of 
attempting  to  determine  the  annual  parallax  of  the  stars : 

by  observing  if  any  change  can  be  discovered  in  the 
meridian  altitudes  of  the  same  star  at  different  times  of  the 
year ;  the  other ,  by  examining  whether  the  intervals  of  time 
between  any  two  stars  coming  to  the  meridian  are  equal 
throughout  the  year.  If  there  be  any  sensible  change  of 
declination  in  any  of  the  stars,  it  must  be  greatest  in  those 
which  are  near  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic ;  but  the  change  of 
right  ascension  must  be  greatest  in  stars  in  the  solstitial 
colure,  and  nearest  the  pole  of  the  equinoctial. 

The  following  is  the  plan  by  which  the  discovery  of  the 
annual  parallax,  by  the  change  of  declination  of  the  stars, 
may  be  attempted.  Let  a  telescope  be  placed  perpendicular 
to  the  horizon,  and  through  this  instrument,  when  accurately 
adjusted,  observe  some  star  in  or  near  the  solstitial  colure, f 
which  passes  through  the  zenith,  or  very  near  it.  If  the 
parallax  of  the  star  be  sensible,  there  will  appear  a  difference 
in  its  altitudes  at  different  periods  of  the  year,  and  its  altitudes 
at  the  two  solsticesj  will  differ  most  from  each  other.  In  the 

*  The  latitude  of  a  star  is  its  distance  from  the  ecliptic,  either  north  or 
south,  counted  towards  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic.  Its  longitude  is  its  dis¬ 
tance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  reckoned  eastward  on  the  ecliptic. 
The  declination  of  a  star  is  its  distance  from  the  equinoctial  north  or  south, 
and  the  greatest  declination  it  can  have  is  90°.  Its  right  ascension  is  its 
distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries,  reckoned  on  the  equinoctial  east¬ 
ward  round  the  sphere  of  the  heavens,  or  that  degree  of  the  equinoctial 
which  comes  to  the  meridian  with  the  star.  By  the  right  ascension  and 
declination  the  situation  of  stars  in  the  heavens  is  determined,  as  that  of 
places  on  the  earth  by  longitude  and  latitude. 

t  The  colures  are  two  great  circles  passing  through  the  poles  of  the 
world ;  one  of  them  passes  through  the  equinoctial  points  Aries  and 
Libra,  which  is  called  the  equinoctial  colure  ;  the  other  through  the  sol¬ 
stitial  points  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  called  the  solstitial  colure.  They  are 
drawn  on  all  celestial  globes  and  planispheres. 

t  The  solstitial  points,  or  solstices,  are  where  the  ecliptic  touches  the 
first  points  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  The  summer  solstice  is  on  the  21st 
of  June ;  the  winter  solstice  is  on  the  21st  of  December. 


THE  ANNUAL  PARALLAX. 


55 


month  of  June  a  star  that  passes  through  the  zenith  of  any 
place,  in  north  latitude,  will  in  December  pass  south  of  the 
zenith,  and  a  star  that  in  December  passes  through  the  zenith 
will  in  June  pass  to  the  north  of  it,  if  there  be  any  sensible 
parallax. 

The  celebrated  Dr.  Robert  Hook  was  among  the  first  who 
suggested  this  method  of  attempting  to  find  the  parallax  of 
the  stars.  In  the  year  1669  he  endeavoured  to  put  it  in  prac¬ 
tice  at  Gresham  College,  with  a  telescope  thirty-six  feet  in 
length.  His  first  observation  was  made  on  the  6th  of  July, 
on  the  bright  star  in  the  head  of  Draco  marked  Gamma.  On 
that  day  it  passed  2'  I2n  north  of  the  zenith.  On  July  9th 
it  passed  at  the  same  distance  as  before.  On  the  6th  of 
August  the  star  passed  north  of  the  zenith  21  6^,  and  on  the 
21st  of  October  it  passed  V  48^  north  of  the  zenith.  But  at 
that  period  astronomical  instruments  were  not  constructed 
with  such  accuracy  as  to  enable  the  observer  to  determine 
with  precision  the  quantity  of  so  small  angles ;  and  even  Dr. 
Hook  himself  could  place  no  great  reliance  on  such  observa¬ 
tions.  In  the  year  1689,  Flamstead,  the  astronomer  royal, 
commenced  similar  observations  with  an  instrument  adapted 
to  a  refracting  telescope  seven  feet  long,  and,  after  numerous 
-observations,  he  supposed  that  he  found  the  pole  star  nearer 
the  pole  in  December  than  in  the  months  of  April,  May,  July, 
August,  or  September ;  and  that  its  apparent  distance  from  the 
pole  was  greater  in  April  than  in  September,  and  greater  in 
July  and  May  than  in  April ;  and  from  the  whole  of  his  ob¬ 
servations  he  deduced  that  its  apparent  distance  from  the  pole 
in  June  must  be  forty-six  seconds  different  from  that  in  De¬ 
cember.  But  even  Flamstead  himself  speaks  of  these  obser¬ 
vations  with  a  great  deal  of  diffidence,  owing  to  his  doubts 
about  the  regular  divisions  of  his  instruments. 

From  these  observations  of  Hook  and  Flamstead,  suppos¬ 
ing  them  to  be  nearly  correct,  Mr.  Whiston  computed  that  the 
greatest  annual  parallax  of  a  star  in  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  is 
forty-seven  seconds ;  and  hence  he  calculated  the  distance  of 
such  stars  to  be  about  9000  semidiameters  of  the  earth’s 
orbit,  then  estimated  at  eighty  millions  of  miles,  or  about 
700,000,000,000,  that  is,  seven  hundred  thousand  millions  of 
miles, — a  distance  so  great  that  it  would  require  a  cannon 
ball,  moving  500  miles  an  hour,  more  than  160,000  years  to 
move  across  this  immense  interval.  But  we  have  reason  to 
believe  that  the  distance  of  the  nearest  stars  from  our  globe  is 
at  least  forty  times  the  distance  now  stated ;  for  modern  astro¬ 
nomers  would  long  since  have  determined  the  annual  parallax 


56 


MR.  MOLYNEUX?S  OBSERVATIONS. 


had  it  been  nearly  so  great  as  Hook  and  Flarastead  supposed; 
nay,  had  it  amounted  to  2 "  instead  of  A7,r  this  grand  problem, 
as  it  respects  the  nearest  stars,  would  have  been  resolved. 

The  human  mind,  when  ardently  engaged  in  the  pursuit  of 
any  object,  is  seldom  deterred  by  difficulties;  and  astronomers 
in  particular,  notwithstanding  the  intricacies  and  difficulties 
connected  with  many  of  the  objects  of  their  investigation, 
have  persevered  in  their  observations  and  researches,  and  have 
not  unfrequently  arrived  at  the  most  important  and  unexpected 
results.  In  the  year  1725,  Mr.  Molyneux,  doubtful  of  the 
accuracy  of  the  observations  of  Hook  and  Flamstead,  began 
a  series  of  observations,  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  the  true 
annual  parallax.  Assisted  by  Dr.  Bradley,  he  placed  a  tele¬ 
scope  of  twenty-four  feet  long  perpendicularly  at  his  house 
at  Kew,  and  began  to  observe  the  same  bright  star  in  Draco 
as  Hook  had  done.  From  the  3rd  of  December  that  year  it 
was  found  that  the  star  did  not  sensibly  change  its  distance 
from  the  zenith  for  several  days.  On  December  17th  it  passed 
a  little  more  southerly,  and  continued  gradually  to  pass  more 
and  more  southerly  at  every  transit  over  the  meridian  till  the 
beginning  of  March,  when  it  was  found  to  pass  twenty  seconds 
more  southerly  than  at  the  time  of  the  first  observation. 
About  the  middle  of  April  it  appeared  to  be  returning  towards 
the  north,  and  at  the  beginning  of  June  it  passed  the  meridian 
at  the  same  distance  from  the  zenith  as  in  December,  when  it 
was  first  observed.  From  that  time  it  appeared  more  and 
more  northerly  at  every  transit  till  September  following,  being 
then  near  twenty  seconds  more  northerly  than  in  June,  and 
no  less  than  thirty-nine  seconds  more  northerly  than  in  March. 
From  September  the  star  returned  towards  the  south  till  it 
arrived,  in  December,  at  the  same  situation  in  which  it  was 
found  a  twelvemonth  before. 

The  result  of  these  observations,  so  different  from  what 
was  expected,  was  a  matter  of  great  surprise  to  the  observers ; 
for  it  appeared  that  the  star  was  thirty-nine  seconds  more 
northerly  in  September  than  in  March,  just  the  contrary  to 
v)hat  it  ought  to  appear  by  the  annual  parallax  of  the  stars. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  figure  : — 

Let  Ji  B  C  T)  represent  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  JL  and 
C  the  place  of  the  earth  at  two  opposite  periods  of  the  year; 
then  a  fixed  object  at  E  will  be  seen  from  the  earth  at  J2,  in 
the  line  Jl  JE,  which  will  point  out  its  apparent  place  at  G  in 
the  concave  expanse  of  the  sky.  But  at  the  opposite  period 
of  the  year  it  will  be  seen  from  the  earth  at  C  in  the  line 
C  JE,  which  will  project  its  place  in  the  heavens  at  F ;  so 


MR.  MOLYNEUx’s  OBSERVATIONS. 


57 


that  while  the  earth  has  passed  from  A  to  C  the  object  will 
appear  to  have  moved  from  G  to  F ,  through  the  space  G  Fr 
provided  there  be  any  sensible  parallax.  Now,  in  the  case 
of  the  observations  stated  above,  the  observers  who  in  Sep 


tember  saw  the  star  at  jP,  did  in  March  following  observe  it 
at  K ,  in  the  right  line  A  K,  parallel  to  C  JP,  and  not  at  G, 
where  it  ought  to  have  appeared  by  the  parallactic  motion ; 
so  that,  instead  of  finding  a  parallax,  they  found  a  result 
directly  opposite  to  what  they  expected,  which  exceedingly 
perplexed  the  observers,  and  one  of  them,  Mr.  Molyneux,  died 
before  the  true  cause  of  it  was  discovered. 


58 


Bradley’s  observations. 


Some  lime  afterwards  Dr.  Bradley  repeated  the  same  ob¬ 
servations  with  an  instrument  of  great  accuracy,  to  which 
was  appended  a  telescope  twelve  and  a  half  feet  long.  With 
this  instrument,  which  was  so  nicely  adjusted  that  he  could 
depend  upon  it  even  to  half  a  second,  he  continued  his  ob¬ 
servations  for  more  than  two  years,  not  only  on  the  bright 
star  in  Draco,  above  alluded  to,  but  on  many  other  stars,  and 
always  observed  the  same  appearances  and  arrived  at  the  same 
results.  At  last,  after  many  reflections  and  conjectures  on  the 
subject,  he  arrived  at  the  following  conclusion — namely,  that 
the  phenomenon  he  had  observed  was  owing  to  u  the  progres¬ 
sive  motion  of  light,  and  the  sensible  proportion  which  its 
velocity  bears  to  the  velocity  of  the  annual  motion  of  the 
earth.”  In  other  words,  that  the  motion  of  light ,  combined 
with  the  progressive  motion  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit ,  causes  the 
stars  to  be  seen  in  a  different  position  from  what  they  would 
be  if  the  eye  were  at  rest.  This  position,  after  it  was  ex¬ 
plained  and  demonstrated,  was  considered  as  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  discoveries  which  had  been  brought  to  light  during 
the  last  century.  It  agrees  with  the  velocity  of  light  which  had 
been  deduced  from  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  satellites,  and  it 
amounts  to  a  sensible  demonstration  of  the  annual  motion 
of  the  earth.  The  observations  which  led  to  this  discovery 
likewise  prove  the  immense  distance  of  the  stars  from  the  earth  ; 
for  Dr.  Bradley  assures  us,  from  the  accuracy  with  which  they 
were  conducted,  that  if  the  annual  parallax  had  amounted  to 
so  much  as  one  second  he  should  have  discovered  it. 

If,  then,  the  greatest  annual  parallax  of  the  nearest  stars 
does  not  amount  to  one  second,  their  distance  must  be  im¬ 
mense.  Supposing  the  parallax  to  be  exactly  one  second,  the 
distance  of  a  star  having  this  parallax  will  be  found  by  the  fol¬ 
lowing  trigonometrical  proportion : — As  the  sine  of  V  :  is  to 
radius : :  so  is  the  semi-diameter  of  the  earth’s  orbit :  to  a 
fourth  number,  which  expresses  the  distance  of  the  star. 
Now,  a  parallax  of  one  second  determines  the  object  to  be 
212^000  times  further  from  the  earth  than  is  the  sun.  The 
distance  of  the  sun  is  95,000,000  of  miles,  which,  multiplied 
by  212,000,  produces  20,140,000,000,000,  or  more  than  twenty 
billions  of  miles.  This  distance  is  absolutely  certain  :  it  fol¬ 
lows,  as  a  matter  of  course,  if  the  annual  parallax  were  de¬ 
termined  to  be  one  second.  It  is  the  very  least  distance  at 
which  any  of  the  fixed  stars  can  be  situated  from  our  globe ; 
but  as  the  parallax  does  not  amount  to  this  quantity,  their 
distance  must  be  much  further  than  what  is  here  stated,  per¬ 
haps  not  less  than  double  or  treble  that  distance.  We  may 


huygen’s  observations. 


59 


acquire  some  faint  idea  of  the  immense  distance  stated  above 
by  considering  that  a  cannon  ball,  flying  with  uniform  velocity 
500  miles  every  hour,  would  require  four  millions ,  and  five 
hundred  and  ninety-five  thousand  years  before  it  could  reach 
an  object  at  the  distance  we  have  stated.  Such  are  the  ample 
and  inconceivable  dimensions  of  the  spaces  of  the  universe. 

Several  other  methods  have  been  resorted  to  by  astrono¬ 
mers  in  order,  if  possible,  to  determine  the  distance  of  the 
stars,  but  most  of  them  are  founded  upon  assumptions  which 
have  not  yet  been  proved.  The  celebrated  Huygens,  as  re¬ 
corded  in  his  “  Cosmotheoros,”  despairing  of  being  able  to 
find  an  annual  parallax,  resorted  to  the  following  method  : — 
supposing  that  the  star  Sirius ,  one  of  the  brightest  fixed  stars 
in  the  heavens,  to  be  equal  in  lustre  and  magnitude  to  the  sun, 
he  endeavoured  to  diminish  the  apparent  diameter  of  the  sun 
to  the  eye,  so  that  it  should  appear  no  larger  or  brighter  than 
Sirius  appears  to  a  common  observer.  For  this  purpose  he 
closed  one  end  of  a  twelve  feet  tube  with  a  very  thin  plate,  in 
the  middle  of  which  he  made  so  small  a  hole  that  a  very  mi¬ 
nute  glass  globule  being  put  into  it,  so  very  small  did  the  sun 
appear  to  the  eye  placed  at  the  other  end  of  the  tube,  that  the 
light  transmitted  to  the  eye  seemed  not  more  splendid  than 
that  which  we  behold  transmitted  from  Sirius  with  the  naked 
eye.  Having  calculated,  on  the  principles  of  optics,  the  quan¬ 
tity  of  diminution  of  the  sun’s  apparent  diameter,  he  found  it 
to  be  only  the  arVg-^th  part;  or,  the  light  and  diameter  of 
the  sun  appeared  27,664  times  smaller  than  what  we  daily 
see.  Hence  he  concluded  that  were  the  sun  at  27,664  times 
his  present  distance  from  us,  he  would  appear  as  small  as  Si¬ 
rius  ;  and  consequently,  if  Sirius  be  of  the  same  magnitude  as 
the  sun,  the  distance  of  that  star  must  be  27,664  times  greater 
than  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth,  or  2,628,080,000,- 
000, — that  is,  two  billions,  six  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
thousand  and  eighty  millions  of  miles.  This  method  of  de¬ 
termining  the  distance  of  the  stars  depends  upon  two  assump¬ 
tions  : — 1st,  that  the  sun  and  Sirius  are  equal  in  magnitude ; 
and  2d,  that  the  eye  judged  correctly  of  the  equality  of  the 
small  intercepted  portion  of  the  sun  to  Sirius ;  both  of  which 
must  be  considered  as  uncertain.  But  it  corroborates  the  ge¬ 
neral  position  of  the  very  great  distance  of  the  stars. 

On  a  principle  somewhat  similar,  but  by  experiments  con¬ 
ducted  with  far  greater  accuracy,  Dr.  Wollaston  endeavoured 
to  determine  the  same  problem  in  relation  to  the  stars.  u  This 
gentleman,”  Sir.  J  Herschel  remarks, u  by  direct  photometrical 
experiments,  open,  as  it  would  seem,  to  no  objections,  has  as- 


60 


herschel’s  observations. 


certained  the  light  of  Sirius,  as  received  by  us,  to  be  to  that 
of  the  sun  as  1  to  20,000,000,000.  The  sun,  therefore,  in 
order  that  it  should  appear  to  us  no  brighter  than  Sirius, 
would  require  to  be  removed  141,400  times  its  actual  distance. 
We  have  seen,  however  that  the  distance  of  Sirius  cannot  be 
so  small  as  200,000  times  that  of  the  sun.  Hence  it  follows 
that,  upon  the  lowest  possible  computation,  the  light  really 
thrown  out  by  Sirius  cannot  be  so  little  as  double  that  emitted 
by  the  sun ;  or  that  Sirius  must,  in  point  of  intrinsic  splendour, 
be  equal  to  two  suns ,  and  is,  in  all  probability,  vastly  greater.” 

The  late  Sir  William  Herschel  proposed  another  method  of 
determining  the  annual  parallax  by  means  of  double  stars , 
which  he  supposed  would  be  free  from  the  errors  of  other 
methods,  and  of  such  a  nature  that  the  parallax,  even  if  it 
should  not  exceed  the  tenth  part  of  a  second,  may  still  become 
visible.  The  following  figure  and  description  will  convey  a 
general  idea  of  this  method  : — 


Fig.  8. 

D 


Let  J1  and  B  (fig.  8)  represent  the  earth  at  two  opposite 
points  in  its  orbit,  and  C  and  D  two  stars  of  different  magni¬ 
tudes.  Then,  if  when  the  earth  is  at  jB,  the  two  stars  appear 
to  us  near  each  other,  as  at  C  and  JE,  it  was  thought  that 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  PARALLAX  OF  61  CYGNI.  61 


when  the  earth  arrived  at  A  the  two  stars  might  appear  further 
apart,  as  at  C  and  D  ;  in  other  words,  that  the  angles  at 
which  they  would  appear  to  us  in  the  two  cases  would  be 
different,  the  angle  D  Jl  C  being  larger  than  the  angle  D  B  C. 
in  which  case  the  angle  of  parallax  might  be  computed.  But 
it  does  not  appear  that  any  difference  in  the  angles  referred 
to  has  yet  been  found,  or  that  any  definite  conclusions  re¬ 
specting  parallax  have  hitherto  been  deduced  from  this  me¬ 
thod,  excepting  the  general  position  that  the  stars  are  at  too 
great  a  distance  to  be  subjected  to  our  calculations,  or  that  our 
angular  instruments  are  still  in  too  imperfect  a  state  to  de¬ 
tect  so  small  an  angle  as  that  of  the  annual  parallax. 

While  writing  the  above,  (December,  1838)  I  perceived  an 
announcement  in  certain  literary  journals,  that  Professor  Bes¬ 
sel,  of  Konigsberg,  had  addressed  a  letter  to  Sir  John  Her- 
schel,  which  was  immediately  communicated  to  the  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  containing  an  account  of  the  discovery 
of  the  annual  parallax  and  the  observations  on  which  it  was 
founded.  In  the  introduction  to  this  communication  Profes¬ 
sor  Bessel  says — u  After  so  many  unsuccessful  attempts  to  de¬ 
termine  the  parallax  of  a  fixed  star,  I  thought  it  worth  while 
to  try  what  might  be  accomplished  by  means  of  the  accuracy 
which  my  great  Fraunhofer  heliometer  gives  to  the  observa¬ 
tions.  I  undertook  to  make  this  investigation  upon  the  star 
61  Cygni ,  which,  by  reason  of  its  great  proper  motion,  is  per¬ 
haps  the  best  of  all,  which  affords  the  advantage  of  being  a 
double  star,  and  on  that  account  may  be  observed  with  greater 
accuracy,  and  which  is  so  near  the  pole  that,  with  the  excep¬ 
tion  of  a  small  part  of  the  year,  it  can  always  be  observed  at 
night  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  horizon.”  The  profes¬ 
sor  began  his  observations  in  September  1834,  but  various 
circumstances  prevented  them  from  being  regularly  continued 
at  that  period.  They  were  resumed  in  1837  with  certain 
hopes  of  success.  He  selected  among  the  small  stars  which 
surrounded  the  double  star  61  Cygni  two  stars  between  the 
ninth  and  tenth  magnitudes,  of  which  one  (a)  is  nearly  per¬ 
pendicular  to  the  line  of  direction  of  the  double  star,  the 
other  (b)  nearly  in  this  direction.  He  measured  with  the 
heliometer  the  distances  of  these  stars  from  the  point  which 
bisects  the  distance  between  the  two  stars  61  Cygni,  and  ge¬ 
nerally  repeated  the  observations  sixteen  times  every  night, 
and  when  the  atmosphere  was  unusually  steady  he  made  more 
numerous  repetitions.  The  places  of  both  stars,  referred  to 
the  middle  point  of  the  double  star,  he  calculated,  for  the  be^ 
ginning  of  1838,  to  be — 

Vol.  VIII. 


6 


62  DISCOVERY  OP  THE  PARALLAX  OP  61  CYGNI. 

Distance.  Angle  of  Position. 

a  461".617  201°  29'  24" 

b  706".279  109°  22'  10" 

In  these  observations,  he  concentrated  his  attention  as  far 
as  he  could  on  the  distance  of  the  small  stars  from  the  double 
star,  as  being  the  most  important  point  to  be  ascertained.  His 
communication  contains  tables  of  all  his  measures  of  distance, 
freed  from  the  effects  of  refraction  and  aberration,  and  reduced 
to  the  beginning  of  1838. 

It  would  be  uninteresting  to  the  general  reader  to  enter  into 
all  the  details  of  observations,  corrections,  and  calculations 
which  Professor  Bessel’s  communication  contains,  as  they 
can  only  be  understood  by  practical  astronomers.  I  shall 
therefore  only  state  his  general  conclusion,  which  seems  to  be 
legitimately  deduced  from  bis  observations  and  reasonings, 
and  may  be  considered  at  least  as  a  very  near  approximation 
to  the  point,  if  not  perfectly  correct.  The  result  then  is,  that 
the  annual  parallax  of  the  star  61  Cygni  is  0".3136;  that  is, 
somewhat  less  than  one-third  of  a  second.  It  follows  that  the 
distance  of  this  star  from  the  sun  is  657,700  times  the  mean 
distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun ;  and  as  the  distance  of 
the  sun  from  the  earth  is  95,000,000  of  miles,  this  number 
multiplied  by  the  former  produces  62,481,500,000,000,  or 
sixty-two  billion s,  four  hundred  aud  eighty-one  thousand  fve 
hundred  millions  of  miles,  which  is  the  distance  of  the  star 
61  Cygni  from  the  sun,  and  which  of  course  is  nearly  about 
the  same  distance  from  the  earth;  the  earth  being  in  one  part 
of  its  course  ninety-five  millions  of  miles  nearer  the  star  than 
this  distance,  and  in  the  opposite  part  of  it  ninety-five  millions 
of  miles  beyond  it.  This,  I  have  no  doubt,  will  be  consi¬ 
dered  as  one  of  the  most  interesting  and  splendid  discoveries 
which  have  been  made  in  astronomy  for  a  century  past.  It 
lays  a  foundation  for  precise  and  definite  conceptions  of  the 
distances  of  some  of  the  starry  orbs,  of  the  amplitude  of  the 
celestial  regions,  and  of  the  magnitude  and  grandeur  of  those 
countless  orbs  which  diversify  the  spaces  of  immensity.  It 
likewise  proves  to  a  demonstration  the  annual  motion  of  the 
earth  round  the  sun,  and  all  the  principles  and  phenomena 
with  which  it  is  connected,  as  well  as  corroborates  the  gene¬ 
ral  views  of  former  astronomers  respecting  the  immense  dis 
tance  of  the  fixed  stars. 

Professor  Bessel  concludes  his  communication  in  these 
words  : — “  As  the  annual  proper  motion  of  a  Cygni  amounts 
to  5". 123  of  a  great  circle,  the  relative  motion  of  this  star  and 


68 


PROFESSOR  BESSEl/s  DISCOVERY. 

the  sun  must  be  considerably  more  than  sixteen  semi-diameters 
of  the  earth’s  orbit,  [that  is,  one  thousand,  five  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  miles,]  and  the  star  must  have  a  constant 
aberration  of  more  than  52".  When  we  shall  have  succeeded 
in  determining  the  elements  of  the  motion  of  both  the  stars 
forming  the  double  star,  round  their  common  centre  of  gra¬ 
vity,  we  shall  be  able  to  determine  the  sum  of  their  masses. 
I  have  attentively  considered  the  preceding  observations  of 
their  relative  positions,  but  I  consider  them  as  yet  very  inade¬ 
quate  to  afford  the  elements  of  the  orbit.  I  consider  them  as 
sufficient  only  to  show  that  the  annual  angular  motion  is 
somewhere  about  two  third's  of  a  degree,  and  that  the  distance 
at  the  beginning  of  this  century  had  a  minimum  of  about  1511. 
We  are  enabled  hence  to  conclude  that  the  time  of  a  revolu¬ 
tion  is  more  than  540  years,  and  that  the  semi-major  axis  of 
the  orbit  is  seen  under  an  angle  of  more  than  15^.  If,  how¬ 
ever,  we  proceed  from  these  numbers,  which  are  merely 
limits ,  we  find  the  sum  of  the  masses  of  both  stars  less  than 
half  the  sun’s  mass.  But  this  point,  which  is  deserving  of 
attention,  cannot  be  established  till  the  observations  shall  be 
sufficient  to  determine  the  elements  accurately.  When  long- 
continued  observation  of  the  places  which  the  double  star  oc¬ 
cupies  amongst  the  small  stars  which  surround  it  shall  have 
led  to  the  knowledge  of  its  centre  of  gravity,  we  shall  be  en¬ 
abled  to  determine  the  two  masses  separately ;  but  we  cannot 
anticipate  the  time  of  these  further  researches.  I  have  here 
troubled  you  with  many  particulars ;  but  I  trust  it  is  not  ne¬ 
cessary  to  offer  any  excuse  for  this,  since  a  correct  opinion  as 
to  whether  the  investigation  of  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni  has 
already  led  to  an  approximate  result,  or  must  still  be  carried 
further  before  this  can  be  affirmed  of  them,  can  only  be  formed 
from  a  knowledge  of  these  particulars.  Had  I  merely  com¬ 
municated  to  you  the  result,  I  could  not  have  expected  that 
you  would  attribute  to  it  that  certainty  which,  according  to 
my  own  judgment,  it  possessed.” 

The  distance  inferred  from  the  parallax  ascertained  by  Bes¬ 
sel  is  more  than  three  times  greater  than  what  was  formerly 
considered  the  least  distance  of  any  of  the  fixed  stars.  In 
order  to  acquire  some  rude  conceptions  of  this  distance,  it 
may  not  be  inexpedient  to  illustrate  it  by  the  times  which 
certain  moving  bodies  would  require  to  move  along  such  a 
space.  Light  is  the  swiftest  moving  body  with  which  we 
are  acquainted ;  it  flies  from  the  sun  to  the  earth,  a  distance 
of  ninety-five  millions  of  miles,  in  about  eight  minutes,  or  at 
the  rate  of  192,000  miles  every  moment  of  time ;  yet  light, 


64  REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  DISTANCE  OF  THE  STARS. 

mcomprehensively  swift  as  its  motion  is,  would  require  ten 
years  and  114  days  to  fly  across  this  mighty  interval ;  so  that  if 
the  star  61  Cygni  were  supposed  to  be  only  just  now  launched 
into  existence,  it  would  be  more  than  ten  years  before  its  light 
could  reach  the  distant  globe  on  which  we  dwell,  so  as  to  ap¬ 
pear  like  a  small  star  twinkling  in  our  sky.  Suppose  a  can¬ 
non  ball  to  move  500  miles  every  hour  without  intermission, 
it  would  require  fourteen  millions,  two  hundred  and  fifty-five 
thousand,  four  hundred  and  eighteen  years  before  it  could 
move  across  the  same  interval.  But  to  come  to  motions  with 
which  we  are  more  familiar :  suppose  a  steam  carriage  to  set 
out  from  the  earth  with  a  velocity  of  twenty  miles  an  hour, 
or  480  miles  a  day ;  at  this  rate  of  motion,  continued  without 
intermission,  it  would  require  356,385,466,  or  three  hundred 
and  fifty-six  millions,  three  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand, 
four  hundred  and  sixty-six  years  before  it  could  pass  from  our 
globe  to  the  star  alluded  to  above — a  number  of  years  sixty- 
one  thousand  times  greater  than  the  whole  period  which  has 
elapsed  since  the  Mosaic  creation. 

Such  distances  are  amazing,  and  almost  terrifying  to  the 
human  imagination.  The  mind  is  bewildered,  confounded, 
and  almost  overwhelmed,  when  attempting  to  form  a  concep¬ 
tion  of  such  portions  of  immensity,  and  feels  its  own  little¬ 
ness,  the  limited  nature  of  its  powers,  and  its  utter  incapacity 
for  grasping  the  amplitudes  of  creation ;  but  although  it  were 
possible  for  us  to  wing  our  flight  to  such  a  distant  orb  as  that 
to  which  we  have  referred,  we  should  still  find  ourselves 
standing  only  on  the  extreme  verge  of  the  starry  firmament, 
where  ten  thousands  of  other  orbs,  a  thousand  times  more  dis¬ 
tant,  would  meet  our  view.  We  have  reason  to  believe  that 
a  space  nearly  equal  to  that  which  we  are  now  considering 
intervenes  between  most  of  the  stars  which  diversify  our  noc¬ 
turnal  sky.  The  stars  appear  of  different  magnitudes ;  but 
we  have  the  strongest  reason  to  conclude  that  in  the  majority 
of  instances  this  is  owing,  not  to  the  difference  of  their  real 
magnitudes,  but  to  the  different  distances  at  which  they  are 
placed  from  our  globe.  If,  then,  the  distance  of  a  star  of  the 
first  or  second  magnitude,  or  those  which  are  nearest  us,  be 
so  immensely  great,  what  must  be  the  distance  of  stars  of  the 
sixteenth  or  twentieth  magnitudes,  which  can  be  distinguished 
only  by  the  most  powerful  telescopes  ?  Some  of  these  must 
be  several  thousands  of  times  more  distant  than  the  star  61 
Cygni,  whose  distance  now  appears  to  be  determined.  And 
what  shall  we  think  of  the  distance  of  those  which  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  most  powerful  telescopes  that  have  yet  >een 


IMMENSITY  OP  THE  DEITY. 


65 


constructed,  stretching  beyond  the  utmost  limits  of  mortal 
vision,  within  the  unexplored  regions  of  immensity  ?  fleie 
even  the  most  vigorous  imagination  drops  its  wing,  and  feels 
itself  utterly  unable  to  penetrate  this  mysterious  and  bound¬ 
less  unknown. 

The  vastness  of  the  spaces  and  greatness  of  the  distances 
to  which  we  have  adverted  ought  not,  however,  to  prevent 
any  one  from  acquiescing  in  the  statements  we  have  now 
made  ;  for  space  is  boundless, — absolutely  infinite.  A  seraph 
might  wing  its  flight  with  the  swiftness  of  light  for  millions 
of  years  through  the  regions  of  immensity,  and  never  arrive  at 
a  boundary  where  it  might  be  said,  u  Hitherto  mayest  thou 
approach,  but  no  farther ;”  and  we  have  reason  to  believe, 
from  what  we  already  know  of  the  Creator  and  his  works, 
that  during  the  whole  course  of  such  an  excursion,  new  ob¬ 
jects  and  new  scenes  of  glory  and  magnificence  would  be 
continually  rising  to  his  view.  To  suppose  otherwise  would 
be  to  set  boundaries  to  space,  and  to  prescribe  limits  to  the 
infinite  perfections  of  the  Divinity.  That  incomprehensible 
Being  who  formed  the  universe  fills  immensity  wfith  his  pre¬ 
sence  ;  his  power  and  wisdom,  and  all  his  other  perfections, 
are  infinite ;  and  therefore  we  should  expect  that  the  plans  on 
which  he  has  constructed  the  systems  of  the  universe  should 
be  like  himself,  vast,  boundless,  and  inconceivable  by  mortals. 
Were  we  to  find  the  plans  of  the  universe  circumscribed  like 
those  which  were  represented  by  the  ancient  astronomers, — 
who  imagined  the  firmament  a  solid  sphere  with  a  number  of 
tapers  whirled  round  the  earth, — we  should  be  apt  to  think 
that  the  Creator  of  the  world  was  a  limited  being ;  but  when 
we  contemplate  the  vast  amplitude  of  planetary  systems,  and 
the  immense  spaces  by  which  they  are  separated  from  each 
other,  we  behold  plans  and  operations  which  are  in  perfect 
unison  with  the  immensity  of  his  nature,  with  his  boundless 
power,  his  uncontrollable  agency,  and  his  universal  presence. 
Wherever  we  turn  our  eyes  throughout  the  scene  of  nature, 
and  fix  our  attention  on  its  plans  and  movements,  we  uniformly 
find  the  Creator  acting  like  Himself ;  and  in  no  case  is 
this  more  strikingly  displayed  than  in  the  grandeur  and  mag¬ 
nificence  of  the  orbs  of  heaven,  and  the  immense  spaces  with 
which  they  are  surrounded. 

This  is  likewise  the  representation  which  the  Scriptures 
give  us  of  the  immensity  and  incomprehensible  nature  of  the 
Deity.  “  Great  is  Jehovah  and  of  great  power ;  his  under¬ 
standing  is  infinite;  his  greatness  is  unsearchable.”  He  is 
not  only  w  high  above  all  nations,”  but  “  his  glory  is  above 

6* 


66  WHETHER  >fAN  L1AY  EVER  TRAVERSE,  ETC. 

the  heavens .”  “  He  dwelleth  on  high,  and  hmnbleth  himself 

to  behold  the  things”  not  only  that  are  “  on  the  earth,”  but 
even  “the  things  that  are  in  the  heavens.”  Vast  as  the  celes¬ 
tial  spaces  are,  “he  meted  out  heaven  with  the  span,”  and 
“  stretched  forth  the  heavens  alone.”  “  Among  the  gods  there 
is  none  like  unto  thee,  neither  are  there  any  works  like  unto 
thy  works.”  “  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ?  Canst 
thou  find  out  the  Almighty  to  perfection  ?  Who  can  utter 
the  mighty  operations  of  Jehovah?  Who  can  shew  forth  all 
his  praise  ?  Lo,  these  are  but  parts  of  his  ways,  but  the 
thunder  of  his  power,  or  the  full  extent  of  his  omnipotence, 
who  can  comprehend  ?”  In  relation  to  a  Being  who  is  thus 
described,  we  can  expect  nothing  but  what  is  wonderful  and 
incomprehensible  by  finite  minds.  The  declarations  of  in¬ 
spired  men  bear  testimony  to  the  discoveries  of  astronomy  as 
in  perfect  unison  with  the  attributes  of  the  Divinity,  so  that 
science  and  revelation  completely  harmonize  in  the  views  they 
unfold  of  the  plans  and  arrangements  of  the  Deity,  and  of  the 
immense  spaces  which  intervene  among  the  systems  of  the 
universe. 

Whether  man  will  ever  be  permitted  to  traverse  any  of  the 
vast  spaces  of  the  universe,  to  which  we  have  now  adverted, 
is  a  question  which  is  at  present  beyond  our  province  to  re¬ 
solve.  In  our  present  state  of  corporeal  organization  it  is 
impossible  to  wing  our  flight  even  to  the  nearest  celestial  orb 
in  that  system  of  which  we  form  a  part,  much  less  to  the 
distant  starry  regions.  How  pure  spirits,  disconnected  with 
material  vehicles,  may  transport  themselves  from  one  region 
of  creation  to  another,  it  is  impossible  for  us,  in  the  present 
state,  to  form  a  conception.  But  it  is  possible  to  conceive  of 
a  system  of  organization  far  more  refined  than  the  present, 
and  susceptible  of  a  power  of  motion  far  surpassing  what  we 
have  an  opportunity  of  witnessing  in  this  terrestrial  sphere — 
a  locomotive  power  which  might  enable  an  intelligent  agent 
to  keep  pace  with  the  rapid  motions  of  the  celestial  orbs.  We 
have  only  to  suppose  organical  vehicles  constructed  with 
matter  far  more  subtle  and  refined  than  hydrogen  gas,  or  the 
etherial  fluid,  and  approximating  to  the  tenacity  of  light  itself. 
As  we  find  animalculse  many  thousands  of  times  less  than 
the  least  visible  point,  their  bodies  must  be  constructed  of 
materials  extremely  subtle  and  refined ;  and  hence  we  may 
infer  that  the  same  Allwise  Intelligence  who  formed  such  mi¬ 
nute  and  refined  structures  can  with  equal  ease  construct  a 
material  organization  for  the  residence  of  a  rational  soul  o:'t 
of  the  finest  materials  which  creation  can  supply,  and  endow 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  STARS. 


67 


it  with  a  capacity  of  rapid  motion  superior  to  that  of  some 
of  the  celestial  globes  which  roll  around  us.  It  is  not  impro¬ 
bable  that  angelic  beings  are  connected  with  such  a  system 
of  material  organization,  which  enables  them  to  move  with 
rapidity  from  one  part  of  creation  to  another ;  and  it  is  possi¬ 
ble  that  man,  in  a  future  world,  may  be  invested  with  such 
vehicles  and  such  powers  of  rapid  motion.  At  the  same  time, 
even  with  such  locomotive  powers,  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  universe  could  be  supposed  to  be  visited  or  explored, 
even  after  a  lapse  of  ages.  It  is  highly  probable  that,  at  this 
moment,  there  is  not  a  single  subordinate  intelligence,  even  of 
the  highest  order  of  created  beings,  who  is  acquainted  with 
every  region  of  universal  nature  and  the  objects  it  contains, 
and  that  the  greater  part  of  the  vast  universe,  with  its  scenery, 
movements,  and  inhabitants,  is  known  only  by  Him  who 
formed  it  by  his  power  and  fills  it  with  his  presence. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON  THE  MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  STARS. 

In  our  attempts  to  ascertain  the  magnitudes  of  any  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  we  must  first  endeavour  to  determine  the 
distances  at  which  they  are  placed  from  our  abode;  and  in 
the  next  place  we  must  measure,  as  accurately  as  possible,  the 
apparent  diameters  of  the  bodies  whose  magnitude  we  wish 
to  determine.  The  extreme  difficulty  of  determining  these 
two  points,  in  certain  instances,  on  account  of  the  smallness 
of  the  angles  which  require  to  be  measured,  has  hitherto  pre¬ 
vented  us  from  ascertaining  with  precision  the  real  magnitudes 
of  the  bodies  connected  with  the  sidereal  heavens.  We  for¬ 
merly  were  led  to  conclude  on  good  grounds,  that  their  dis¬ 
tances  were  almost  immeasurably  great,  and  consequently 
that,  as  they  emit  a  certain  degree  of  splendour  to  our  eye, 
even  from  such  remote  distances,  their  bulk  must  be  im¬ 
mensely  great.  But  no  precise  conceptions  could  be  formed 
as  to  this  point  so  long  as  the  annual  parallax  of  some  of  the 
stars  remained  undetermined. 

The  annual  parallax  of  the  star  61  Cygni  being  now  in  all 
probability  ascertained,  (as  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,) 
we  are  in  possession  of  certain  data  which  may  lead  to  the 
determination  of  the  real  magnitude  of  that  body.  But  a 


68 


MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  STARS. 


difficulty  still  remains.  The  stars  are  found  to  have  no  sensi¬ 
ble  diameters.  When  viewed  through  telescopes  of  the  great¬ 
est  power,  they  present  no  visible  disks,  or  well-defined  sur¬ 
faces  to  the  eye,  as  the  planets  do,  when  viewed  through  such 
instruments,  but  appear  only  as  so  many  shining  and  unde¬ 
fined  points.  When  they  are  viewed  through  a  telescope  of 
moderate  size,  their  diameters  appear  less  than  when  examined 
by  the  naked  eye,  but  considerably  more  brilliant.  When 
we  view  them  with  a  telescope  of  greater  power,  the  apparent 
diameters  will  be  somewhat  increased,  but  not  according  to 
any  regular  proportion,  as  happens  in  the  case  of  the  planets ; 
and  even  when  seen  with  the  same  power,  through  different 
telescopes,  their  apparent  magnitudes  are  not  precisely  the 
same.  Sir  William  Herschel,  who  viewed  these  bodies  under 
almost  every  aspect,  uniformly  found  that  their  diameter  was 
less  in  proportion  as  the  higher  powers  were  applied ;  and  the 
smallest  proportional  diameter  he  ever  obtained  was  when  he 
employed  the  extraordinary  power  of  6450  times.  From 
such  observations  it  appears  that  the  apparent  diameters  of 
the  fixed  stars  do  not  arise  from  any  sensible  disk,  but  from 
other  causes  with  which  we  are  not  acquainted.  Dr.  Halley 
remarks  that  w  the  diameters  of  Spica  Virginis  and  Aldebaran 
(two  stars  of  the  first  magnitude)  are  so  small,  that  when 
they  happen  to  immerge  behind  the  dark  edge  of  the  moon, 
they  are  so  far  from  losing  their  light  gradually,  as  they  must 
do  if  they  were  of  any  sensible  magnitude,  that  they  vanish 
at  once  with  all  their  lustre,  and  emerge  likewise  in  a  moment, 
not  small  at  first,  but  at  once  appear  with  their  full  light,  even 
although  the  emersion  happen  when  very  near  the  cusp,  where, 
if  they  were  four  seconds  in  diameter,  they  would  be  many 
seconds  of  time  in  getting  entirely  separated  from  the  limb. 
But  the  contrary  appears  to  all  those  who  have  observed  the 
occultations  of  those  bright  stars.”  Every  one  who  has  been 
in  the  habit  of  viewing  the  starry  firmament  with  good  tele¬ 
scopes  will  at  once  admit  that,  although  that  instrument  brings 
to  view  numerous  stars  which  the  unassisted  sight  cannot 
perceive,  yet  they  appear  only  as  luminous  points  with  no 
well-defined  sensible  diameters,  although  their  light  is  much 
more  brilliant  than  to  the  naked  eye. 

Hence  the  difficulty  of  determining,  with  precision,  the  real 
magnitudes  of  any  of  the  fixed  stars.  From  their  immense 
distance  we  are  perfectly  certain  that  they  are  bodies  of  im¬ 
mense  size,  otherwise  they  would  be  altogether  invisible  from 
our  terrestrial  sphere,  or  from  any  part  of  the  solar  system. 
But  we  have  hitherto  obtained  no  sufficient  data  for  estimating 


MAGNITUDE  OF  THE  STARS. 


69 


their  exact  size,  as  we  have  done  in  relation  to  the  globes 
which  compose  the  planetary  system.  Since,  then,  the  appa¬ 
rent  diameters  of  the  stars,  even  those  of  the  first  magnitude, 
are  so  small  as  not  to  amount  to  a  single  second,  we  cannot 
hope,  in  the  meantime,  to  determine  their  measure  with  any 
degree  of  certainty.  We  may  assign  them  a  measure  which 
we  certainly  know  they  do  not  exceed,  but  we  cannot  be  sure 
that  that  measure  is  not  too  great.  All  luminous  objects  ap¬ 
pear  larger  than  those  of  the  same  dimensions  which  are 
opaque.  The  planet  Mercury,  when  in  its  greatest  brightness, 
appears  larger  than  when  it  is  seen  to  pass,  like  a  dark  spot, 
across  the  disk  of  the  sun,  although  it  is  nearest  the  earth  in 
this  last  position.  The  apparent  diameters  of  the  fixed  stars 
are  much  smaller  than  they  have  generally  been  supposed  by 
those  who  have  attempted  to  measure  them.  Yet  small  as 
they  are,  their  real  magnitudes  must  be  very  great ,  since  they 
are  visible  to  our  sight  at  the  immense  distance  at  which  they 
are  placed.  In  proportion  to  the  greatness  of  their  distance, 
and  the  smallness  of  their  apparent  diameters,  will  be  their 
real  magnitudes.  If  we  suppose  the  apparent  diameters  of 
any  of  the  stars  observed  by  Dr.  Bradley  to  be  equal  to  the 
400,000th  part  of  the  sun’s  apparent  diameter,  or  °f  a 

second — which  is  a  probable  supposition  for  a  star  of  the  se¬ 
cond  magnitude, — it  will  follow  that  such  a  star  is  equal  to 
the  sun  in  magnitude.  For,  if  the  sun  were  removed  to  the 
distance  at  which  such  a  star  is  situated,  he  would  appear  no 
larger  than  those  twinkling  points,  nay,  would  perhaps  disap¬ 
pear  altogether  from  our  view.  From  all  the  observations 
and  reasonings  that  have  been  entered  into  on  this  subject,  we 
have  no  proofs  that  any  of  the  stars  are  less  than  the  sun,  but 
it  is  more  probable  that  many  of  them  equal  and  even  far  sur¬ 
pass  that  luminary  in  their  real  dimensions  and  splendour. 
Having  obtained  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni*  if  we  could  find 
the  exact  apparent  diameter  of  that  star,  its  real  bulk  could  be 
calculated  with  as  much  ease  and  certainty  as  the  bulk  of  the 
sun,  or  moon,  or  any  of  the  planets.  But  as  this  important 
element  in  the  ^calculation  is  still  a  desideratum ,  we  must  re¬ 
sort  to  other  methods  by  which  we  may  arrive  at  the  near¬ 
est  approximation  to  the  truth. 

*  This  star  belongs  to  the  constellation  Cygnus,  or  the  Swan.  Its 
right  ascension  for  January  1,  1839,  was  20h  59r  41",  and  its  declination 
37°  57'  42"  north.  In  places  52°  of  N.  latitude,  this  star  passes  the  meri¬ 
dian  within  two  or  three  minutes  of  the  zenith.  It  is  a  star  of  about  the 
fifth  magnitude.  It  is  28  degrees  nearly  due  east  from  the  bright  star 
Vega,  or  a  Lyras,  in  the  constellation  of  the  Harp,  and  nearly  nine  de¬ 
grees  south  by  east  of  Deneb,  or  a  Cygni,  the  principal  star  in  the  Swan. 


70 


PROBABLE  MAGNITUDE  OF  SOME  STARS. 


I  have  already  alluded  to  the  photometrical  experiments  of 
Dr.  Wollaston,  in  relation  to  the  comparative  quantity  of  light 
emitted  to  our  eye  from  the  star  Sirius  and  from  the  sun.  In 
reference  to  these  experiments,  Sir  John  Herschel,  in  a  mar¬ 
ginal  note,  remarks: — “Dr.  Wollaston  assuming,  as  we  think 
he  is  perfectly  justified  in  doing,  a  much  lower  limit  of  possible 
parallax  in  Sirius  than  we  have  adopted  in  the  text,  has  con¬ 
cluded  the  intrinsic  light  of  Sirius  to  be  nearly  that  of  four¬ 
teen  suns.”  Sir  William  Herschel  informs  us  that,  with  a 
magnifying  power  of  6450,  and  by  means  of  his  new  micro¬ 
meter,  he  found  the  apparent  diameter  of  Vega  or  a  Lyrae  to 
be  0,n  355 :  this  will  give  the  real  diameter  of  the  star  about 
thirty-eight  times  that  of  the  sun,  or  33,440,000  miles,  sup¬ 
posing  its  parallax  to  be  one  second.  Were  this  its  true  es¬ 
timate,  its  solid  contents  would  be  19,579,357,857,382,400,- 
000,000,*  or,  above  nineteen  thousand  five  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  trillions  of  miles  ;  which  is,  fifty-four  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  seventy-two  times  larger  than  the  solid  con¬ 
tents  of  the  sun.  The  magnitude  of  such  a  globe  is  altogether 
overpowering  to  the  human  imagination,  and  completely  baffles 
every  effort  to  approximate  to  a  distinct  conception  of  an 
object  of  such  amazing  amplitude  and  splendour.  We  have 
formerly  shewnj*  that  the  sun  is  a  body  of  so  vast  dimensions 
that  the  human  mind,  in  its  present  state,  can  form  no  ade¬ 
quate  conceptions  of  it ;  that  it  is  more  than  500  times  greater 
than  all  the  planets,  satellites,  and  comets  of  our  system ;  that 
it  is  equal  to  thirteen  hundred  thousand  globes  as  large  as  the 
earth ;  that  its  surface  contains  an  amplitude  fifty-three  mil¬ 
lions  seven  hundred  and  seventy  thousand  times  larger  than 
the  view  from  Mount  Etna,  which  comprises  an  extent  of 
45,000  miles ;  and  that,  were  a  landscape  on  the  sun  of  this 
extent  to  be  contemplated  every  two  hours,  it  would  require 
twenty-four  thousand  five  hundred  years  before  the  whole  sur¬ 
face  of  this  luminary  could  be  in  this  manner  surveyed. 
What,  then,  shall  we  think  of  the  probable  existence  of  a  lu¬ 
minous  globe  fifty-four  thousand  times  greater  than  the  ex¬ 
pansive  globe  of  the  sun  ! 

However  amazing  the  magnitude  of  such  a  body  may  ap¬ 
pear,  we  ought  not  on  this  account  to  consider  the  existence 

*  In  some  editions  of  the  “Improvements  of  Society”  (p.  92)  this 
number  is  inaccurately  stated,  the  cube  of  the  diameter  having  been  by 
mistake  substituted  for  the  solid  contents  of  the  body,  but  the  general  re¬ 
sult  of  the  comparative  magnitudes  of  the  two  bodies  is  the  same. 

t  Celestial  Scenery,”  chap.  iii.  sect.  10,  p.  199. 


stars  op  different  magnitudes. 


71 


of  such  an  orb  as  either  improbable  or  incredible.  Prior  to 
the  first  discoveries  of  modern  astronomy  two  or  three  cen¬ 
turies  ago,  no  one  could  have  believed  that  the  sun  is  a 
body  of  such  an  immense  size  as  he  is  now  found  to  be, 
or  that  the  planetary  system  occupies  so  extensive  a  range  as 
astronomers  have  now  determined  it.  And  we  are  not  to 
conceive  that  even  the  immense  amplitude  of  the  sun  is  the 
highest  scale  of  magnitude  which  the  Creator  has  prescribed 
to  himself  in  his  arrangements  of  the  universe.  From  the 
knowledge  we  have  already  acquired  of  the  vastness  of  the 
scale  on  which  creation  is  constructed,  we  have  reason  to 
believe  that  bodies  exist  in  it  far  surpassing,  in  magnitude  and 
grandeur,  any  of  the  globes  to  which  we  have  alluded.  There 
are  certain  lucid  specks  in  the  heavens  which  can  only  be  per¬ 
ceived  by  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  which  wre  are  quite 
certain,  from  their  immense  distance,  must  comprise  a  mass 
of  matter  thousands  of  times  larger  than  our  sun, — either  a 
distinct  mass  of  materials  or  a  congeries  of  shining  globes  so 
near  each  other  that  the  separate  bodies  cannot  be  distin¬ 
guished.  As  the  distances  between  the  great  globes  of  the 
universe  is  incomprehensible  by  limited  intellects,  so  the 
magnitude  of  some  of  these  bodies  may  be  so  great  as  to  sur¬ 
pass  every  estimate  and  every  conception  we  may  have 
hitherto  formed  on  this  subject.  Such  views  of  the  magni¬ 
tudes  of  creation  are  quite  in  accordance  with  the  ideas  we 
ought  to  entertain  of  a  Being  who  is  eternal,  omnipresent, 
omnipotent,  and  incomprehensible. 

But,  without  going  beyond  the  strict  deductions  of  science, 
we  may  fairly  conclude  that  there  are  few  stars  in  the  concave 
of  our  sky  that  do  not  equal,  and  even  surpass,  our  sun  in 
size  and  in  splendour ;  and  if  so,  what  a  glorious  and  over¬ 
whelming  scene  does  creation  present  to  an  intelligent  and 
contemplative  mind !  Here  we  are  presented  with  a  scene  on 
'which  the  highest  order  of  created  beings  may  expatiate  for 
myriads  of  ages,  and  objects,  ever  wonderful  and  ever  new, 
may  still  present  themselves  to  the  astonished  mind  through¬ 
out  the  whole  length  of  its  immortality ;  so  that  the  most 
expansive  intellects  shall  never  want  subjects  of  sublime  in¬ 
vestigation  during  all  the  revolutions  of  an  interminable 
existence. 

We  are  not  to  imagine  that  all  the  stars,  even  those  which 
appear  with  the  same  brilliancy,  are  of  the  same  size.  We 
have  reason  to  believe  that  a  variety ,  in  this  respect,  exists 
among  those  distant  orbs,  as  well  as  among  the  bodies  which 


72  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  DISTANCE  OF  STARS. 


compose  the  planetary  system,  and  in  other  departments  of 
nature.  Various  considerations  tend  to  shew  that44 one  star 
differeth  from  another  star  in  glory,”  not  only  as  they  appear 
to  the  naked  eye,  but  in  reality ,  as  to  their  intrinsic  magni¬ 
tude  and  splendour.  Some  of  the  telescopic  stars  appear  of 
very  different  colours,  one  exhibiting  rays  of  an  orange  or 
ruddy  hue,  another  blue,  another  yellow,  and  another  green, 
indicating  a  difference  in  their  constitution  and  in  the  nature 
of  the  light  they  emit.  Among  the  double  stars,  the  one 
which  is  found  revolving  round  the  other  is  evidently  the 
smaller  body,  as  its  light  is  not  distinguishable  without  a  high 
magnifying  power,  and  yet  its  distance  from  the  earth  must 
bs  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  larger  star  around  which  it 
revolves.  Recent  observations  tend  to  prove  that  some  of  the 
smaller  stars  have  not  only  a  greater  annual  parallax  than 
those  which  are  most  brilliant,  but  an  absolute  motion  in 
space  much  greater  than  those  of  the  brightest  class,  which 
indicates  that  there  is  a  difference  in  the  real  size  of  those 
bodies,  and  that  some  of  the  stars  which  appear  smallest  to 
our  eye  may  be  the  largest  in  real  dimensions ;  but  the 
smallest  of  them  are,  undoubtedly,  bodies  of  such  magnitudes 
as  surpass  our  distinct  comprehension. 

Some  readers,  from  their  ignorance  of  the  mathematical 
principles  of  astronomy,  and  from  being  incapable  of  appre¬ 
ciating  the  observations  to  which  we  have  referred,  are  apt  to 
view  with  a  certain  degree  of  scepticism  the  conclusions 
which  astronomers  have  deduced  respecting  the  distances  and 
magnitudes  of  the  stars.  Perhaps  the  following  considera¬ 
tion,  level  to  the  capacity  of  every  man  of  common  sense, 
may  have  a  tendency  to  convince  even  the  most  sceptical  that 
the  stars  are  situated  at  an  almost  incalculable  distance  from 
the  earth. 

Suppose  a  telescope  to  magnify  400  times,  that  is,  makes  a 
distant  object  appear  four  hundred  times  nearer,  and  four 
hundred  times  larger  in  diameter,  than  to  the  naked  eye. 
With  an  instrument  of  this  description  I  have  been  enabled 
to  read  a  person’s  name,  the  letters  of  which  were  not  above 
half  an  inch  in  length  or  breadth,  at  the  distance  of  more 
than  two  miles.  When  this  telescope  is  directed  to  the  moon, 
it  enables  us  to  perceive  the  shadows  of  its  mountains,  and 
other  minute  portions  of  its  scenery,  and  even  to  distinguish 
rocks  and  cavities  less  than  a  mile  in  diameter.  When 
directed  to  the  planet  Venus,  it  exhibits  it  as  a  large  splendid 
body,  with  either  a  gibbous,  a  half-moon,  or  a  crescent  phase. 


DISTANCE  OF  THE  STARS  PROVED.  73 

When  directed  to  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  it  makes  these  orbs 
appear  several  times  larger  than  the  moon  does  to  the  naked 
eye,  and  enables  us  to  perceive  the  dark  belts  which  run 
across  the  one,  and  the  rings  which  surround  the  other. 
Now,  if  this  same  instrument  be  directed  to  the  fixed  stars, 
it  shews  them  only  as  so  many  luminous  points ,  without  any 
well-defined  diameters.  It  brings  to  view  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  stars  which  the  naked  eye  cannot  discern; 
but  although  they  appear  somewhat  more  brilliant,  they 
appear,  on  the  whole,  no  larger  in  diameter  than  the  stars  in 
general  do  to  the  unassisted  sight.  This  circumstance  I  con¬ 
sider  as  a  palpable  and  sensible  evidence  of  the  immense  dis¬ 
tance  of  the  fixed  stars ;  for  bodies  at  the  distance  of  nine 
hundred,  and  even  of  eighteen  hundred  millions  of  miles, 
appear  magnified  in  proportion  to  the  power  of  the  instru¬ 
ment  ;  and  why  should  not  the  fixed  stars  appear  magnified 
in  the  same  proportion,  and  present  to  the  eye  large  disks 
like  the  planets,  were  it  not  on  account  of  their  incalculable 
distance?  Were  they  only  at  a  moderate  distance  from  the 
planetary  system — suppose  ten  times  the  distance  of  Saturn, 
or  nine  thousand  millions  of  miles, — this  would  undoubtedly 
be  the  case ;  but  observation  proves  the  contrary.  When  we 
view  a  planet — for  example,  Saturn ,  which  is  distant  nine 
hundred  millions  of  miles — through  a  telescope  magnifying 
400  times,  we  contemplate  it  as  if  we  had  been  carried  to  a 
point  only  the  four  hundredth  part  of  its  distance ;  that  is, 
we  view  it  as  if  we  were  brought  within  little  more  than  tivo 
millions  of  miles  of  its  surface.  In  other  words,  we  see  it  of 
the  same  magnitude,  and  nearly  with  the  same  distinctness,  as 
if  we  had  surmounted  the  law  of  gravitation,  and  been  trans¬ 
ported  more  than  897  millions  of  miles  from  our  present 
abode  in  the  direction  of  that  orb. 

When  such  an  instrument  is  directed  to  the  fixed  stars,  it 
does  not  lose  its  power  as  a  telescope  ;  this  is  proved  by  its 
presenting  the  nebula,  which  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye, 
as  large,  well-defined  spaces  in  the  firmament.  It  carries  us 
within  the  four  hundredth  part  of  their  actual  distance,  and 
enables  us  to  contemplate  them  just  as  we  would  do  if  we 
were  400  times  nearer  them  than  we  are.  Let  us  suppose, 
as  formerly,  the  distance  of  the  nearest  stars  to  be  20,000,000,- 
000,000,  or  twenty  billions,  of  miles,  we  contemplate  such 
stars  by  this  instrument  as  if  we  were  carried  to  a  station 
nineteen  billions  nine  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  miles 
from  the  place  we  now  occupy,  where  we  should  still  be  fifty 
Vol.  VIII.  7 


74 


ON  NEW  STARS. 


thousand  millions  of  miles*  distant  from  these  bodies.  Sup¬ 
posing  the  sun  were  removed  to  a  point  fifty  thousand  millions 
of  miles  from  the  place  he  now  occupies — which  is  526  times 
his  present  distance, — he  would  appear  526  times  less  in 
diameter  than  at  present,  or  under  an  angle  of  little  more  than 
3£  seconds,  which  is  less  than  the  apparent  diameter  of 
Uranus,  a  body  which  is  generally  invisible  to  the  naked  eye; 
so  that  if  a  star  be  distant  twenty  billions  of  miles,  and  equal 
to  the  sun  in  magnitude,  it  should  appear  no  more  than  a  point 
When  viewed  with  a  telescope  magnifying  400  times.  Sup¬ 
posing,  then,  that  we  were  transported  through  the  immense 
space  of  19,950,000,000,000  miles,  we  behoved  to  be  carried 
forward  several  thousands  of  millions  of  miles  further  before 
those  distant  orbs  would  appear  to  expand  into  large  disks 
like  the  moon,  or  like  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  when  viewed 
through  telescopes. 

The  above  considerations  prove  to  a  demonstration  that  the 
nearest  stars  are  removed  from  us  at  immense  and  inconceiv¬ 
able  distances ;  and  if  their  distance  be  so  great,  their  magni¬ 
tudes  must  likewise  be  astonishing,  otherwise  they  would  be 
altogether  invisible  either  to  the  naked  eye  or  by  the  tele¬ 
scope  ;  for  a  distant  visible  object  must  always  be  considered 
as  having  a  magnitude  proportional  to  its  distance  and  its 
apparent  diameter. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  NEW  STARS. 

To  almost  every  eye  but  that  of  the  astronomer,  the  starry 
firmament  presents  the  same  general  aspect.  To  a  common 
observer,  the  nocturnal  heavens  exhibit  the  appearance  of  a 
vast  concave  bespangled  with  countless  numbers  of  shining 
points,  of  various  degrees  of  brilliancy,  and  distributed  over 
the  sky  apparently  without  any  order  or  arrangement. — 
Whether  the  clusters  of  stars  which  are  seen  in  summer  and 
in  winter  are  the  same, — whether  the  stars  which  are  seen  in 

*  The  following  is  the  calculation  expressed  in  figures : — 

400)  20,000,000,000,000,  dist.  of  the  star. 

50,000,000,000,  dist.  as  viewed  by  the  telescope. 


19,950,000,000,000,  dist.  from  the  earth  at  which  we  view  it 


CHANGES  OBSERVED  BY  THE  ANCIENTS.  75 

one  region  of  the  heavens  at  six  o’clock  in  the  evening  are 
identically  the  same  which  are  seen  in  the  same  quartei  at 
midnight,  or  at  three  in  the  morning, — whether  there  be  any 
stars  which  were  seen  by  our  forefathers  which  are  no  longer 
visible, — whether  any  stars  unknown  to  former  generations 
can  now  be  traced  in  the  firmament, — or  whether  any  of  those 
orbs  which  are  visible  at  one  time  are  invisible  at  another, — 
to  such  inquiries  there  is  not  one  out  of  a  thousand  of  those 
who  have  occasionally  gazed  at  the  starry  heavens  that  could 
give  a  satisfactory  reply.  It  is  the  industrious  astronomer 
alone,  who,  with  unwearied  observations  spends  sleepless 
nights  in  surveying  the  various  regions  of  the  celestial  vault, 
that  can  tell  with  certainty  whether  or  not  any  changes  occa¬ 
sionally  take  place  in  reference  to  any  of  the  starry  orbs. 

The  first  account  we  have  of  any  changes  having  been  per¬ 
ceived  among  the  stars  is  that  recorded  by  Hipparchus,  of 
Rhodes,  a  celebrated  astronomer  who  flourished  about  120 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  About  this  period,  this  ac¬ 
curate  observer  of  the  heavens  perceived,  in  a  certain  part  of 
the  firmament,  a  star  which  he  had  never  observed  before, 
and  of  which  he  could  find  no  record  in  the  observations  of 
his  predecessors.  Struck  with  this  new  and  unexpected 
phenomenon,  he  began  to  doubt  whether  changes  might  not 
happen  among  the  celestial  orbs  as  well  as  in  the  scene  of 
nature  here  below.  In  order  that  such  changes  when  they 
happen  might  be  known  to  future  generations,  he  began  to 
form  a  catalogue  of  all  the  stars  visible  in  that  part  of  the 
world  where  he  resided,  noting  down  the  place  and  apparent 
magnitude  of  each  star,  till  he  at  length  completed  a  list  of 
all  the  visible  stars  in  the  heavens ;  which  was  the  first 
catalogue  of  those  luminaries  of  which  we  have  any  account 
in  history.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  have  no  spe¬ 
cific  account  of  the  particular  part  of  the  heavens  where  this 
new  star  appeared,  as  it  might  have  led  us  to  determine 
whether  it  be  still  visible,  or  whether  it  be  subject  to  periodi¬ 
cal  changes,  or  have  altogether  disappeared. 

In  the  year  130  after  the  Christian  era,  another  new  star  is 
said  to  have  made  its  appearance.  In  the  year  389,  a  new 
star  appeared  near  a  Aquilae,  or  Altair,  in  the  constellation  of 
the  Eagle.  Its  appearance  was  sudden ;  it  continued  three 
weeks,  emitting  a  splendour  equal  to  that  of  Venus,  and  after¬ 
wards  entirely  disappeared.  In  the  ninth  century,  a  new  star 
appeared  in  the  fifteenth  degree  of  Scorpio,  which  is  said  to 
have  emitted  as  much  light  as  is  reflected  from  one  quarter  of 
the  moon.  In  945,  a  new  star  appeared  between  the  con- 


76 


NEW  STAR  IN  CASSIOPEIA. 


stellations  of  Cepheus  and  Cassiopeia;  and  another,  in  1264, 
near  the  constellation  Cassiopeia ;  but  of  these  stars  the  ac¬ 
counts  are  so  vague  and  imperfect  that  we  can  form  no  distinct 
conceptions  of  the  phenomena  they  exhibited. 

The  most  striking  and  wonderful  phenomenon  of  this  kind 
of  which  we  have  an  authentic  and  distinct  description 
occurred  in  the  beginning  of  November,  1572,  when  a  new 
star  appeared  in  Cassiopeia,  forming  nearly  a  rhombus  with 
the  three  largest  stars,  a,  j3 ,  y,  of  that  constellation.  Its  ap¬ 
pearance  was  sudden  and  brilliant.  Its  phenomena  were  so 
striking  that  the  sight  of  it  determined  the  celebrated  Tycho 
Brahe  to  become  an  astronomer.  He  did  not  see  it  at  half  an 
hour  past  five,  when  he  was  returning  from  his  house  to  his 
laboratory ;  but  returning  about  ten,  he  came  to  a  crowd  of 
country  people  who  were  staring  at  something  behind  him. 
Looking  round,  he  saw  this  wonderful  object.  It  was  so 
bright  that  his  staff  had  a  shadow ;  it  was  of  a  dazzling 
white,  with  a  little  of  a  bluish  tinge.  It  had  no  tail  or  hair 
around  it  similar  to  comets,  but  shone  with  the  same  kind  of 
lustre  as  the  other  fixed  stars.  Its  brilliancy  was  so  great  as 
to  surpass  that  of  Lyra  and  Sirius.  It  appeared  even  larger 
than  Jupiter,  which  was  then  at  its  nearest  approach  to  the 
earth,  and  by  some  was  estimated  to  be  superior  to  the  planet 
Venus  in  its  greatest  lustre.  It  was  even  seen  by  those  who 
had  good  eyes  at  noon  day ;  a  circumstance  which  never  hap¬ 
pens  in  the  case  of  any  of  the  other  stars,  or  even  of  the 
planets,  except  Venus,  which  has  sometimes  been  seen  in 
daylight  in  certain  peculiar  positions.  During  night,  it  was 
frequently  seen  through  thin  clouds  which  entirely  inter¬ 
cepted  the  light  of  the  other  stars.  In  this  state  it  continued 
to  shine  with  undiminished  brilliancy  during  the  remaining 
part  of  November,  or  more  than  three  weeks.  It  did  not, 
however,  continue  much  longer  with  this  degree  of  bright¬ 
ness,  but  gradually  diminished  in  its  lustre.  In  the  month  of 
December,  it  appeared  to  be  only  equal  to  Jupiter ;  in  January, 
1573,  it  appeared  a  little  less  than  that  planet,  but  still  some¬ 
what  larger  than  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  to  which  it 
appeared  about  equal  during  the  months  of  February  and 
March  ;  thus  gradually  diminishing  in  brightness,  in  April  and 
May,  it  was  like  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude ;  in  the 
months  of  June,  July,  and  August,  it  was  equal  only  to  the 
largest  stars  in  Cassiopeia,  which  are  mostly  of  the  third 
magnitude ;  in  September,  October,  and  N ovember,  it  was  no 
larger  than  a  star  of  the  fourth  magnitude  ;  in  December,  it 
was  about  equal  to  the  star  called  Gamma ,  which  was  nearest 


NEW  STAR  IN  CASSIOPEIA. 


77 


to  it ;  towards  the  end  of  1573,  and  during  the  month  of 
January,  1574,  it  was  but  little  superior  to  stars  of  the  fifth 
magnitude ;  in  February,  it  was  no  larger  than  a  star  of  the 
sixth  magnitude ;  and  in  the  month  of  March  it  entirely  dis¬ 
appeared,  having  continued  visible  from  the  beginning  of 
November,  1572,  to  March,  1574,  a  period  of  about  sixteen 
months.  It  was  remarked  that  as  it  diminished  in  size  it  was 
likewise  subject  to  certain  changes  in  colour  and  brightness. 
When  it  appeared  largest,  its  light  was  white  and  brilliant ; 
after  which  it  appeared  a  little  yellowish ;  and  in  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  spring,  1573,  it  approached  something  to  the  colour 
of  Mars,  being  reddish  like  the  star  Al  debar  an ,  or  the  Bull’s 
Eye,  and  a  little  less  bright  than  the  star  in  the  right  shoulder 
of  Orion.  In  the  month  of  May  that  year,  it  was  of  a  pale 
livid  white,  like  Saturn ;  which  colour,  as  likewise  its  spark¬ 
ling  appearance,  continued  to  the  last,  only  growing  more 
dim  and  faint  as  it  approached  the  period  of  its  disappearance. 

"Such  were  the  appearances  and  changes  of  this  wonderful 
star.  These  phenomena  were  particularly  observed  by  seve¬ 
ral  astronomers  of  that  period,  especially  by  Tycho  Brahe, 
who  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  subject,  in  which  he  determined 
its  longitude  and  latitude,  and  demonstrated  that  it  was  situated 
in  the  region  of  the  fixed  stars,  at  a  much  greater  distance 
from  the  earth  than  the  sun,  moon,  or  any  of  the  planets,  as 
it  had  no  sensible  parallax,  and  remained  in  the  same  point 
of  the  heavens  during  the  whole  period  of  its  appearance. 
This  star  was  likewise  diligently  observed  by  Cornelius 
Gamma,  who  says  that  on  the  night  of  the  8th  November, 
1572,  he  viewed  with  some  attention  that  part  of  the  heavens, 
in  a  very  serene  sky,  but  saw  nothing  uncommon ;  but  that 
the  next  night,  November  9th,  it  appeared  with  a  splendour 
surpassing  all  the  fixed  stars,  and  scarcely  less  bright  than 
Venus.  The  longitude  of  this  star,  as  determined  by  Tycho, 
was  9°  17',  and  53°  45'  of  north  latitude. 

The  point  in  the  heavens  where  this  star  appeared  may  be 
ascertained  from  the  following  figure,  which  exhibits  a  repre¬ 
sentation  of  the  principal  stars  in  Cassiopeia.  The  general 
position  of  this  constellation  may  be  found  from  the  map  of 
the  circumpolar  stars,  Plate  III.  It  is  almost  directly  opposite 
Ursa  Major ,  or  the  Great  Bear.  A  line  drawn  from  the  Bear 
through  the  pole-star  meets  Cassiopeia  at  nearly  an  equal  dis¬ 
tance  on  the  other  side  of  that  star.  When  the  Bear  is  at  its 
lowest  position  below  the  pole,  Cassiopeia  is  near  the  zenith, 
and  vice  versa.  In  the  annexed  representation  (fig.  9)  the 
large  star  towards  the  left  points  out  the  place  which  was 


78  POSITION  OF  THE  NEW  STAR  IN  CASSIOPEIA. 

occupied  by  the  new  star,  which,  with  the  three  stars  a,  |3,  y, 
forms  a  kind  of  rhombus,  or  irregular  square.  The  one  on 
the  left  above  the  new  star  is  j 3,  and  is  also  known  by  the 

Fig.  9. 


name  of  Caph.  The  one  to  the  right  of  Caph  and  a  little 
higher  is  a,  distinguished  likewise  by  the  name  Schedir. 
Below  Schedir,  and  a  little  to  the  right,  is  the  star  y,  or 
Gamma.  About  six  degrees  north-west  of  Caph,  the  tele¬ 
scope  reveals  to  us  a  pretty  large  nebula  of  small  stars, 
apparently  compressed  into  one  mass,  with  a  number  of  loose 
stars  surrounding  it. 

In  the  year  1604,  about  the  end  of  September,  another  new 
star  appeared  near  the  heel  of  the  right  foot  of  Serpentarius. 
At  that  time,  near  the  same  part  of  the  heavens,  the  planets 
Mars,  Jupiter,  and  Saturn,  were  very  near  each  other,  a  pheno¬ 
menon  which  so  engaged  the  attention  of  astronomers  that  no 
uncommon  appearance  in  that  quarter  of  the  heavens  could 
long  have  escaped  detection.  On  the  17th  of  September 


NEW  STAR  IN  SERPENT ARIUS. 


79 


Kepler,  who  wrote  a  treatise  on  this  star,  carefully  observed 
the  three  planets ;  on  the  23d,  he  again  viewed  Mars  and  Ju¬ 
piter,  then  approaching  to  their  conjunction;  and  one  of  his 
scholars  made  the  same  observation  on  the  27th.  On  the 
28th,  and  on  the  29th,  which  was  the  day  when  Mars  and 
Jupiter  were  in  conjunction,  they  were  observed  by  Mcestli- 
nus  and  others ;  but  none  of  them  as  yet  saw  any  thing  of 
the  new  star.  On  the  30th,  the  sudden  breaking  of  the  clouds 
afforded  one  of  Kepler’s  friends  an  opportunity  of  having  a 
very  short  view  of  it ;  for  in  looking  for  Mars  and  Jupiter,  he 
saw  a  bright  star  near  them,  which  he  had  not  seen  before, 
but  it  was  soon  obscured  by  clouds.  On  the  2d,  3d,  4th,  and 
6th  of  October,  it  was  seen  by  several  persons  in  different 
places.  On  account  of  cloudy  weather  at  Prague,  where  Kep¬ 
ler  resided,  he  did  not  see  it  till  the  8th  of  that  month.  All 
the  observers  agreed  in  this, — that  it  was  exactly  round, 
without  any  beard  or  tail ;  that  it  was  exactly  like  one  of 
the  fixed  stars ;  and  that  in  the  vividness  of  its  lustre,  and  the 
quickness  of  its  sparkling,  it  exceeded  any  thing  they  had  ever 
seen  before.  As  to  its  colour ,  it  was  remarked  that  it  was 
every  moment  changing  into  the  colours  of  the  rainbow,  as 
yellow,  orange,  purple,  and  red ;  but  was  generally  white 
when  at  a  little  height  above  the  vapours  near  the  horizon. 
At  its  first  appearance,  it  seemed  larger  than  any  of  the  fixed 
stars,  and  even  surpassed  Jupiter,  which  planet  was  near  it 
during  the  whole  of  October,  and  by  its  steady  light  was 
easily  distinguishable  from  this  vehemently  sparkling  star.  It 
continued  of  the  same  size  and  brilliancy  during  the  whole  of 
October.  About  the  end  of  this  month  the  sun  was  approach¬ 
ing  that  part  of  the  heavens  in  which  the  star  appeared,  yet 
on  the  30th  it  was  so  much  brighter  than  Jupiter  that  Kepler 
could  see  it  distinctly  when  Jupiter  was  imperceptible,  on  ac¬ 
count  of  the  light  of  the  sun,  though  he  was  further  from  the 
sun’s  beams  than  the  star.  On  the  6th  and  8th  of  November 
it  was  seen  by  Kepler  and  others  ;  and  at  Turin,  on  the  13th, 
which  appears  to  have  been  the  last  time  it  was  perceived  be¬ 
fore  being  overpowered  by  the  solar  rays.  After  emerging 
from  the  sun’s  rays,  on  the  west,  it  was  seen  in  the  morning 
on  the  24th  December,  and  though  it  sparkled  exceedingly, 
yet  it  was  considerably  diminished  in  magnitude,  appearing, 
however,  larger  than  the  bright  star  Jlntares.  From  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  January  1605,  till  the  middle  of  March,  it  gradually 
diminished  in  brightness.  In  the  beginning  of  April,  it  ap¬ 
peared  like  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude,  and  continued 
nearly  of  the  same  s’ze  during  the  months  of  May,  June,  and 


80 


NEW  STARS  HAVE  NEVER  RE-APPEARED. 


July,  and  continued  to  sparkle  more  strongly  than  any  other 
lixed  star.  On  September  28th,  a  year  after  its  first  appear¬ 
ance,  it  was  more  brilliant  than  the  star  in  the  leg  of  Serpenta- 
rius,  which  is  reckoned  of  the  third  magnitude.  As  it  was  at 
this  time  again  approaching  to  the  vicinity  of  the  sun,  it  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  seen  after  this  period.  In  December, 
1605,  and  January,  1606,  cloudy  weather  prevented  observa¬ 
tions  after  it  had  emerged  from  the  solar  rays.  Kepler  con¬ 
cludes  that  it  must  have  disappeared  some  time  between  Octo¬ 
ber,  1605,  and  the  following  February,  but  on  what  day  is 
uncertain.  Like  the  former  star  which  appeared  in  Cassiopeia, 
it  had  no  parallax,  and  remained  in  the  same  point  of  the 
heavens. 

None  of  the  new  stars  whose  phenomena  we  have  de¬ 
scribed  above  have  ever  re-appeared,  the  places  which  they 
occupied  still  remaining  a  blank.  It  is  much  to  be  regretted 
that  the  telescope  was  not  invented  at  the  periods  when  these 
stars  appeared,  as  it  might  have  been  ascertained  by  that  in 
strument  whether  they  had  any  sensible  diameters.  At  any 
rate,  their  gradual  decrease  of  magnitude  and  lustre  might 
have  been  traced  by  a  good  telescope  for  a  long  period,  per¬ 
haps  for  years,  after  they  disappeared  to  the  naked  eye,  which 
might  have  led  us  to  draw  some  conclusions  respecting  the 
cause  which  produced  so  extraordinary  phenomena.  Were 
such  a  remarkable  phenomenon  to  happen  in  our  times,  when 
telescopes,  micrometers,  and  other  astronomical  instruments 
have  received  so  many  exquisite  improvements,  so  as  to  en¬ 
able  us  to  penetrate  deep  into  the  profundity  of  space,  and  to 
measure  the  smallest  angles,  a  variety  of  additional  facts  and 
circumstances  would  doubtless  be  discovered  in  relation  to 
phenomena  and  events  so  striking  and  sublime.* 

The  subject  of  new  stars,  such  as  those  now  described, 
which  blazed  forth  with  so  extraordinary  a  brilliancy  and  so 
soon  disappeared,  naturally  gives  rise  to  solemn  and  interest¬ 
ing  reflections.  There  is  a  mystery  that  hangs  over  such 
sublime  phenomena  which  produces  in  the  mind  an  anxious 
desire  to  behold  the  veil  removed,  and  to  investigate  the  rea¬ 
sons  and  Causes  of  such  stupendous  events.  w  It  is  impossi- 

*  Besides  the  above,  the  following  instances  of  new  stars  may  be 
noted  : — In  the  year  1670,  a  new  star  was  discovered  by  Hevelius  and 
Anthelm,  near  the  head  of  the  Swan,  which,  after  becoming  invisible,  re¬ 
appeared,  and  after  undergoing  several  singular  fluctuations  of  light  dur¬ 
ing  two  years,  gradually  vanished  from  the  sight,  and  has  never  since 
been  seen.  Another  new  star  is  said  to  have  been  seen  the  same  year  at 
Paris,  about  the  back  of  the  Swan,  which,  after  the  space  of  fourteen  days, 
vanished  away. — Whiston’s  Astronomical  Lectures,  p.  45. 


CONJECTURES  RESPECTING  NEW  STARS.  81 

ble,”  says  Mrs.  Sommerville,  when  alluding  to  the  star  of 
1572,  “to  imagine  any  thing  more  tremendous  than  a  con¬ 
flagration  that  would  be  visible  at  such  a  distance.”  Whether 
there  was  any  thing  in  the  existing  state  of  the  body  alluded 
to  similar  to  what  we  call  a  conflagration  may  be  justly 
doubted ;  but  there  was  a  splendour  and  luminosity  concen¬ 
trated  in  that  point  of  the  heavens  where  the  star  appeared 
which  would  more  than  equal  the  blaze  of  twelve  hundred 
thousand  worlds  such  as  ours,  were  they  all  collected  into 
one  mass,  and  all  at  once  wrapt  in  flames.  Nay,  it  is  not  im¬ 
probable  that,  were  a  globe  as  large  as  would  All  the  whole 
circumference  of  the  earth’s  annual  orbit  to  be  lighted  up  with 
a  splendour  similar  to  that  of  the  sun,  it  would  scarcely  sur¬ 
pass  in  brilliancy  and  splendour  the  star  to  which  we  refer  ; 
for  during  the  whole  period  of  its  continuing  visible,  it  never 
appeared  in  the  least  to  shift  its  position,  though  it  was  care¬ 
fully  watched  by  the  astronomers  of  that  age ;  and,  conse¬ 
quently,  the  whole  diameter  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  while  the 
earth  passed  from  one  extremity  of  it  to  another,  appeared 
only  as  a  point  at  the  vast  distance  at  which  the  star  was 
situated.  These  may  appear  bold  positions,  but  they  are  in 
some  measure  warranted  by  the  facts  of  the  case,  and  they 
are  perfectly  consistent  with  what  we  know  of  many  of  the 
other  astonishing  operations  of  that  Almighty  Being  who  is 
“  wonderful  in  counsel  and  excellent  in  working,”  and 
“whose  ways,”  in  providence  and  creation  “are  past  finding 
out.” 

It  is  natural  to  inquire  what  may  have  been  the  cause  of 
phenomena  so  extraordinary  and  sublime ;  but  our  limited 
views  of  creation  and  of  the  plans  and  purposes  of  its  Omni¬ 
potent  Contriver  and  Governor  prevent  us  from  arriving  at 
any  satisfactory  conclusions.  La  Place  says,  in  reference  to 
this  subject — “As  to  those  stars  which  suddenly  shine  forth 
with  a  very  vivid  light,  and  then  vanish,  it  may  be  sup¬ 
posed,  with  probability,  that  great  conflagrations,  occasioned 
by  extraordinary  causes,  take  place  on  their  surfaces  ;  and  this 
supposition  is  confirmed  by  their  change  of  colour,  analogous 
to  that  which  is  presented  to  us  on  the  earth  by  bodies  which 
are  consumed  by  fire.”*  But  such  an  opinion,  however  great 
the  astronomer  who  proposed  it,  appears  quite  unsatisfactory. 
We  err  egregiously  when  we  attempt  to  compare  the  puny 
operations  and  conflagrations  which  happen  on  our  globe 
with  a  scene  so  far  transcending  every  thing  we  behold  in  this 


*  System,  of  the  World,  vol.  i.  p.  101. 


82  CONJECTURES  RESPECTING  NEW  STARS. 

tenestrial  sphere.  The  greatest  conflagration  that  was  ever 
witnessed  on  earth  cannot  bear  the  smallest  proportion  or 
similitude  to  an  object  which  must  have  occupied  a  space 
more  than  ten  hundred  thousand  times  the  solid  contents 
of  our  globe;  nor  is  it  likely  that  the  agents  or  elementary 
principles  which  produced  the  respective  phenomena  were  at 
all  similar. 

The  late  Professor  Vince,  one  of  the  most  learned  astrono¬ 
mers  of  his  age,  has  the  following  remark : — ■“  The  disappear¬ 
ance  of  some  stars  may  be  the  destruction  of  that  system  at 
the  time  appointed  by  the  Deity  for  the  probation  of  its  inha¬ 
bitants,  and  the  appearance  of  new  stars  may  be  the  formation 
of  new  systems  for  new  races  of  beings  then  called  into  exist¬ 
ence  to  adore  the  works  of  their  Creator.”*  The  late  Dr. 
Mason  Good  seemed  to  indulge  in  a  similar  opinion, 
u  Worlds,  and  systems  of  worlds,”  says  he,  “are  not  only  per¬ 
petually  creating,  but  also  perpetually  disappearing.  It  is  an 
extraordinary  fact  that,  within  the  period  of  the  last  century, 
not  less  than  thirteen  stars,  in  different  constellations,  seem  to 
have  totally  perished,  and  ten  new  ones  to  have  been  created. 
In  many  instances  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  stars  them¬ 
selves,  the  supposed  habitation  of  other  kinds  or  orders  of  in¬ 
telligent  beings,  together  with  the  different  planets  by  which 
it  is  probable  they  were  surrounded,  have  utterly  vanished, 
and  the  spots  which  they  occupied  in  the  heavens  have  be¬ 
come  blanks.  What  has  befallen  other  systems  will  assuredly 
befal  our  own.  Of  the  time  and  the  manner  we  know  noth¬ 
ing  ;  but  the  fact  is  incontrovertible — it  is  foretold  by  revela¬ 
tion — it  is  inscribed  in  the  heavens — it  is  felt  through  the 
earth.  Such  is  the  awful  and  daily  text;  what,  then,  ought 
»to  be  the  comment?”  Similar  to  these  were  the  sentiments 
of  the  late  professor  Robinson,  of  Edinburgh  : — “  What  has 
become  of  that  dazzling  star,  surpassing  Venus  in  brightness, 
which  shone  out  all  at  once  in  November,  1572?” — “Such 
appearances  in  the  heavens  make  it  evident  that,  notwith¬ 
standing  the  wise  provision  made  for  maintaining  that  order 
and  utility  which  we  behold  in  our  system,  the  day  may 
come  6  when  the  heavens  shall  pass  away  like  a  scroll  that  is 
folded  up,  when  the  stars  in  heaven  shall  fall,  and  the  sun 
shall  cease  to  give  his  light.’  The  sustaining  hand  of  God  is 
still  necessary,  and  the  present  order  and  harmony  which  he 
has  enabled  us  to  understand  and  admire  is  wholly  dependent 


Vince’s  “  Complete  System  of  Astronomy.” 


SUCH  STARS  NOT  ANNIHILATED. 


83 


on  his  will,  and  its  duration  is  one  of  the  unsearchable  mea¬ 
sures  of  his  providence.” 

Such  are  the  pious  sentiments  of  the  above-named  respect¬ 
able  philosophers  in  reference  to  the  subject  under  considera¬ 
tion  ;  but  it  may  be  questioned  whether  they  are  altogether 
judicious,  or  correspondent  to  the  perfections  of  the  Creator 
and  the  arrangements  he  has  made  in  the  universe.  They 
seem  to  take  for  granted  that  those  stars  which  have  blazed 
for  awhile,  and  then  disappeared,  have  been  destroyed  or  an¬ 
nihilated.  We  are  indeed  informed  that,  in  regard  to  our 
globe,  a  period  is  approaching  when  “the  elements  shall  melt 
with  fervent  heat,  and  the  earth  and  the  works  that  are  therein 
shall  be  burnt  up.”  But  such  a  conflagration  cannot  be  justly 
compared  to  the  splendours  of  those  wonderful  stars  described 
above.  At  whatever  period  in  the  lapse  of  duration  such  an 
event  may  take  place,  it  will  be  so  far  from  being  visible  at 
the  nearest  star,  that  it  would  not  be  seen  by  such  eyes  as 
ours  at  the  boundaries  of  our  system.  Besides,  we  are  as¬ 
sured,  in  that  revelation  which  announces  it,  that  that  aw¬ 
ful  event  shall  take  place  as  one  of  the  consequences  of  the 
sin  and  depravity  of  man ;  and  therefore  we  have  no  reason 
to  believe  that  it  will  extend  to  the  sun  or  any  of  the  sur¬ 
rounding  planets  of  our  system ;  nor  have  we  any  reason  to 
conclude  that  the  conflagration  of  our  globe  will  issue  in  its 
entire  destruction,  or  that  the  elementary  principles  of  which 
it  is  composed  will  be  annihilated.  It  is  more  probable,  nay, 
almost  certain,  that  this  tremendous  event  will  only  tend  to 
purify  our  globe  from  the  physical  evils  which  now  exist,  and 
to  transform  it  into  a  new  and  happier  world  for  the  residence 
of  renovated  and  pure  intelligences.  In  regard  to  annihilation , 
we  have  no  proof  that  any  particle  of  matter  which  was  ever 
created  has  yet  been  annihilated.*  Incessant  changes  and 
transformations  are  going  forward  both  in  the  scene  of  sublu¬ 
nary  nature  and  throughout  the  celestial  regions  :  but  changes 
in  material  objects  do  not  necessarily  imply  the  destruction 
of  the  matter  of  which  they  are  composed,  but  simply  a  new 
arrangement  or  mode  of  operation.  We  have  no  reason  to 
believe  that  any  portions  of  matter  which  now  exist  through¬ 
out  the  universe  will  ever  be  reduced  to  annihilation.  On  the 
other  hand,  we  have  palpable  evidence,  from  several  phenomena 
in  the  heavens,  that  the  work  of  creation  is  still  going  for¬ 
ward,  and  that  the  Creator  is  gradually  ushering  into  existence 

*  See  “Philosophy  of  a  Future  State,”  chap.  i.  sect  10  ;  and  “  Chris 
tian  Philosopher,”  7th  edit.  p.  229. 


84  REFLECTIONS  IN  RELATION  TO  NEW  STARS. 

new  suns,  and  systems,  and  worlds ;  and  in  all  probability 
his  creating  energy  will  be  continually  exerting  itself  through¬ 
out  all  the  succeeding  ages  of  eternity. 

Again,  if  that  grand  and  terrific  event  which  is  to  put  a  final 
period  to  the  present  terrestrial  system  is  to  be  viewed  as  a 
consequence  of  the  introduction  of  moral  evil  and  the  depra¬ 
vity  of  man,  then  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  those  intelli¬ 
gences  which  were  connected  with  the  systems  which  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  have  been  destroyed  must  have  been  involved  in  the 
guilt  of  moral  degeneracy,  or,  in  other  words,  in  rebellion 
against  their  Creator;  otherwise,  why  were  they  subjected 
to  such  an  awful  catastrophe,  and  doomed  to  be  blotted  out 
of  existence  ?  We  have  no  ground  for  entertaining  any  such 
supposition.  Reasoning  from  the  benevolence  of  the  Deity,  it 
is  more  probable  to  conclude  that  the  inhabitants  of  our  world 
are  almost  the  only  intelligences  throughout  the  universe  who 
have  swerved  from  the  path  of  original  rectitude,  and  violated 
the  moral  laws  of  their  Maker.  N or  is  it  likely  that  the  whole 
inhabitants  of  any  system,  consisting,  perhaps,  of  thirty  or 
even  of  a  hundred  Worlds — would  be  found  uniting  in  rebel¬ 
lion  against  the  moral  government  of  their  Benefactor,  so  as 
to  warrant  the  entire  destruction  of  the  system  with  which 
they  were  connected.  Besides,  were  the  views  of  the  philo¬ 
sophers  to  which  I  allude  to  be  adopted,  then  we  must  admit 
that  the  systems  which  in  their  opinion  were  destroyed  or 
annihilated  must  have  been  continued  in  existence  only  for  a 
year  or  two ;  for  no  luminous  bodies  occupied  the  places  of 
the  new  stars  before  they  burst  on  a  sudden  to  the  view,  and 
no  twinkling  orbs  have  been  seen  in  these  points  of  the  hea¬ 
vens  since  they  disappeared ;  but  it  is  surely  not  at  all  proba¬ 
ble  that  the  Almighty  would  launch  into  existence  systems  of 
such  amazing  magnitude  and  splendour,  and  suffer  them  to  rush 
into  destruction  within  a  period  of  so  very  limited  duration. 

For  the  reasons  now  stated,  and  others  which  might  have 
been  brought  forward,  I  cannot  acquiesce  in  the  views  of  the 
respectable  philosophers  to  which  I  have  adverted ;  but  it  is 
easier  to  set  aside  an  untenable  hypothesis  than  to  attempt  an 
explanation  of  the  real  causes  of  so  sublime  and  wonderful 
phenomena.  In  investigating  the  distant  wonders  of  the  uni¬ 
verse  and  the  arrangements  of  the  Divine  government,  it  be¬ 
comes  us  to  express  our  sentiments  with  modesty  and  caution. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  causes  which  produced  the  sud¬ 
den  splendour  and  the  rapid  disappearance  of  the  new  stars,  I 
entertain  not  the  least  doubt  that  those  bodies  are  still  in  ex¬ 
istence,  and  subserving  important  purposes  in  the  economy  of 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PHENOMENA  OF  NEW  STARS.  85 

God’s  universal  government.  Almost  any  hypothesis  is  to  be 
preferred  to  that  which  supposes  their  destruction  or  annihila¬ 
tion.  What  should  hinder  us  from  concluding  that  the  ex¬ 
traordinary  phenomena  of  the  star  of  1572  was  owing  to  a 
luminous  orb  of  immense  magnitude,  accompanied  with  a 
retinue  of  worlds,  moving  with  inconceivable  velocity  in  an 
immense  elliptical  orbit ,  the  longer  side  of  which  was  nearly 
in  a  direction  to  our  eye  ;  that  its  most  brilliant  appearance 
was  when  it  was  nearerst  our  system,  as  at  (fig.  10,)  sup- 

Fig.  10. 

B 


E 

<3 


D 

posing  E  the  relative  position  of  the  earth,  or  of  our  system ; 
and  that,  as  it  gradually  declined  in  its  brightness,  it  was 
passing  along  the  curve  from  A  towards  B  and  C,  till  its  rapid 
flight  at  length  carried  it  beyond  the  limits  of  human  vision  ? 
Had  telescopes  been  in  use  at  that  period,  there  is  little  doubt 
it  would  have  been  seen,  though  still  diminishing,  for  a  much 
longer  period  than  that  in  which  it  was  visible  to  the  un¬ 
assisted  eye  ;  in  which  case  it  would  have  fully  corroborated 
the  opinion  now  stated.  In  confirmation  of  this  explanation 
of  the  phenomena  it  has  been  supposed,  with  a  high  degree 
of  probability,  that  it  is  the  same  star  which  appeared  in  the 
year  945  and  in  1264,  which,  of  course,  would  have  a  period 
of  revolution  of  about  319  years,  which  period  might  vary 
two  or  three  years  in  the  course  of  its  revolutions,  from 
causes  with  which  we  are  unacquainted,  as  we  find  sometimes 
happens  in  the  case  of  comets.  This  opinion  is  rendered  the 
more  probable  from  the  consideration  that  the  stars  of  945 
and  1264  appeared  in  the  constellation  of  Cassiopeia where 
likewise  the  star  of  1572  was  observed ;  and  if  these  be  identi¬ 
cal,  then  it  is  probable  that  it  will  again  make  its  appearance 
about  the  year  1891  or  1892 ;  and  if  so,  astronomers  will 
then  have  a  better  opportunity  of  marking  its  aspects  and 
motions,  and  determining  its  size  and  its  period  of  revolution. 
Vol.  VIII.  *  8 


86  CONCLUDING  REFLECTIONS  ON  NEW  STARS. 


If  this  explanation  appear  the  most  probable,  it  presents  to 
the  mind  a  most  magnificent  and  overwhelming  idea,  without 
supposing  any  thing  so  tremendous  and  terrific  as  a  sudden 
conflagration.  It  presents  before  us  a  luminous  globe  of  as¬ 
tonishing  magnitude — perhaps  not  less  than  a  hundred  times 
the  size  of  our  sun — winging  its  course  over  a  circuit  perhaps 
a  thousand  times  more  expansive  than  the  orbit  of  Uranus, 
and  carrying  along  with  it  a  hundred  worlds  in  its  swift 
career.  The  motion  of  such  a  body  must  have  been  rapid  in 
the  extreme,  when  we  consider  the  rapid  diminution  of  its  ap¬ 
parent  magnitude.  In  the  month  of  November  it  first  appeared ; 
in  December  its  brightness  was  sensibly  diminished ;  in  the 
month  of  April  following  it  had  diminished  to  the  size  of  a 
star  of  the  second  magnitude ;  in  July,  to  one  of  the  third 
magnitude  ;  in  October,  to  one  of  the  fourth  ;  in  the  following 
January,  to  one  of  the  fifth;  in  February,  to  one  of  the  sixth 
magnitude  ;  and  in  March  it  disappeared. 

Now,  according  to  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  experiments,  the  light 
of  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  being  supposed  100,  the  light 
of  one  of  the  second  magnitude  is  25,  one  of  the  third  magni¬ 
tude,  12,  &c.  (see  p.  35.)  If,  then,  we  suppose  these  classes 
of  stars  to  be  nearly  of  equal  magnitudes,  and  that  their  dis¬ 
tance  is  in  an  inverse  proportion  to  the  diminution  of  their 
light,  it  will  follow  that  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude  is  four 
times  the  distance  of  a  star  of  the  first;  a  star  of  the  third 
magnitude,  four  times  the  distance  of  the  second,  or  eight  times 
the  distance  of  the  first  magnitude,  &c.  Supposing,  then,  the 
star  of  1572  to  have  been  twenty  billions  of  miles  from  the 
earth  at  its  nearest  approach  to  our  system :  from  December, 
1572,  to  April,  1573,  when  it  was  diminished  to  the  apparent 
size  of  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  it  must  have  moved  four 
times  that  distance,  or  eighty  billions  of  miles  during  these 
four  months,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  six  hundred  thousand 
millions  of  miles  a  day,  and  four  hundred  and  sixty-two  mil¬ 
lions  a  minute,  a  velocity  of  which  we  can  have  no  adequate 
conception. 

If  the  above  explanation  be  unsatisfactory,  I  know  not  to 
what  hypothesis  to  resort  for  a  solution  of  this  mysterious 
and  wonderful  phenomenon.  Whatever  view  we  may  be  dis¬ 
posed  to  take  of  such  striking  events,  we  are  lost  in  admira¬ 
tion  and  wonder.  We  behold  a  display  of  magnitude,  of 
motion,  and  of  magnificence,  which  overpowers  the  human 
faculties,  which  shew's  us  the  littleness  of  man  and  the  limited 
nature  of  his  powers,  and  which  ought  to  inspire  us  with 
reverence  of  that  Almighty  Being  who  sits  on  the  throne  of 


VARIABLE  STARS. 


87 


the  universe,  directing  all  its  movements  for  the  accomplish¬ 
ment  of  his  wise  and  righteous  designs,  and  for  the  diffusion 
of  universal  happiness  throughout  all  the  ranks  of  intelligent  ex¬ 
istence.  However  astonishing  the  conclusions  we  are  led  to 
deduce  from  the  phenomena  under  consideration,  the  facts  to 
which  we  have  adverted  are  not  beyond  the  energies  of  Him 
whose  perfections  are  strictly  infinite.  Nay,  from  such  a 
Being,  who  is  self-existent  and  omniscient,  who  fills  the  im¬ 
mensity  of  space  with  his  presence,  and  whose  power  is 
boundless  in  its  operation,  we  should  naturally  expect  that, 
displays  of  creating  and  sustaining  energy  would  be  exhibited, 
altogether  overwhelming  and  incomprehensible  by  mortals. 
w  Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God  ?  Canst  thou  find  oui 
the  almighty  perfection  ?  In  the  heights  of  heaven  he  doth 
great  things  past  finding  out,  yea,  and  wonders  without  num¬ 
ber.  By  his  spirit  he  hath  garnished  the  heavens.  The  pil¬ 
lars  of  heaven  tremble  and  are  astonished  at  his  reproof.  Lo, 
these  are  but  parts  of  his  ways  ;  but  the  thunder  of  his  power 
who  can  understand  ?” 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  VARIABLE  STARS. 

When  the  starry  firmament  is  attentively  surveyed,  and  the 
aspects  of  the  numerous  orbs  it  contains  particularly  marked, 
it  is  found  that  several  of  these  bodies  are  subject  to  periodi¬ 
cal  changes  in  the  brilliancy  of  their  light  and  in  their  appa¬ 
rent  diameters,  indicating  in  some  instances  motions  and 
revolutions  of  considerable  extent.  The  following  sketches 
contain  descriptions  of  the  more  remarkable  phenomena  con¬ 
nected  with  this  class  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  generally  known 
by  the  name  of  variable ,  or  periodical  stars  : — 

The  first  star  of  this  kind  which  seems  to  have  been  par¬ 
ticularly  noticed  is  one  in  the  neck  of  the  Whale,  whose  right 
ascension  is  2h  8'  33r/,  and  south  declination,  3°  57'  25".  It 
was  first  observed  on  August  13th,  1596,  by  David  Fabricius, 
when  it  appeared  like  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude,  but  dis¬ 
appeared  after  the  month  of  October  in  the  same  year.  It 
was  again  observed  by  Holwarda  in  the  year  1637 ;  and  after 
having  disappeared  during  a  period  of  nine  months,  it  again 


88 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIABLE  STARS. 


became  visible ;  since  which  time  it  has  been  found  every 
year  pretty  regular  in  its  period,  except  from  October,  1672, 
to  December,  1676,  during  which  time  Hevelius  could  not 
perceive  it,  though  it  was  a  particular  object  of  his  attention. 
Bullialdus,  a  Frenchman,  having  compared  together  the  ob¬ 
servations  that  had  been  made  on  it  from  1638  to  1666, 
determined  the  periodical  time  between  its  appearing  in  its 
greatest  brightness  and  returning  to  it  again  to  be  333  days. 
He  found  also  that  about  120  days  elapse  between  the  time 
that  it  is  first  seen  of  the  sixth  magnitude  and  its  disappear¬ 
ing  ;  that  it  continues  in  its  greatest  lustre  for  about  fifteen 
days  ;  that  after  its  first  re-appearance  of  the  sixth  magnitude 
it  increases  in  size  much  faster  till  it  come  to  be  of  the  fourth 
magnitude,  than  it  does  from  that  period  to  its  being  of  the 
third ;  and  that  from  its  being  of  the  third  it  increases  to  the 
second  magnitude  by  still  slower  degrees.  Modern  astrono¬ 
mers  give  the  following  description  : — It  remains  in  its 
greatest  brightness  about  a  fortnight,  being  then  nearly  equal 
to  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude ;  it  decreases  during  three 
months,  till  it  becomes  completely  invisible,  in  which  state  it 
remains  about  five  months,  when  it  again  becomes  visible,  and 
continues  increasing  during  the  remaining  three  months  of  its 
period;  but  it  does  not  always  return  to  the  same  degree  of 
brightness,  nor  increase  and  diminish  by  the  same  gradations.” 

It  appears  about  twelve  times  in  eleven  years.  Cassini  deter¬ 
mined  its  period  to  be  334  days  ;  but  Sir  W.  Herschel  makes 
it  331  days,  10  hours,  19  minutes.  It  appears,  then,  that  this 
star  passes  through  all  the  gradations  of  light  and  magnitude 
from  a  star  of  the  second  to  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude 
and  under ;  but  after  it  has  disappeared  to  lire  naked  eye  it 
may  be  traced  to  its  lowest  magnitude  by  a  telescope  of 
moderate  power.  It  is  sometimes  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Stella  Mira ,  or  the  wonderful  star,  and  Omic?on  Ceti. 

In  1704,  Maraldi  observed  a  variable  star  in  the  constellation 
Hydra .  This  star  had  been  described  by  Montanari  in  1670,  * 
but  was  not  visible  in  April,  1702.  Maraldi  saw  it  for  the 
first  time  in  the  beginning  of  March,  1704,  in  the  same  place 
where  it  had  been  seen  thirty-four  years  before.  It  appeared 
of  the  fourth  magnitude,  and  continued  nearly  in  the  same 
state  till  the  beginning  of  April.  It  then  gradually  diminished 
till  the  end  of  May,  when  it  could  no  longer  be  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  but  was  visible  through  the  telescope  for  a  month 
longer.  It  could  not  be  seen  again  till  the  end  of  November, 
1705,  when  that  part  of  the  heavens  began  to  emerge  from 
th 3  sun’s  rays.  It  was  then  very  faint,  and  grew  less  and  less 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIABLE  STARS.  89 

till  the  end  of  February,  1706,  and  could  then  be  scarcely 
perceived  even  with  a  telescope.  It  did  not  re-appear  till  the 
ISth  of  April,  1708,  when  it  was  larger  than  a  star  of  the 
sixth  magnitude,  and  increasing  in  lustre.  It  was  seen  by 
the  same  observer  afterwards,  in  the  years  1709  and  1712. 
From  the  observations  of  MaraMi,  Mr.  Pigot  concludes  that 
its  period  was  then  494  days ;  but  from  observations  made 
by  himself,  he  thinks  that  now  it  is  only  487  days ;  so  that 
from  the  time  of  Maraldi  it  has  shortened  seven  days.  The 
following  are  the  more  prominent  particulars  relating  to  this 
star  : — 1.  When  at  its  full  brightness  it  is  of  the  fourth  magni¬ 
tude,  and  does  not  perceptibly  change  for  the  space  of  fourteen 
days.  2.  It  is  about  six  months  in  increasing  from  the  tenth 
magnitude  and  returning  to  the  same ;  so  that  it  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  invisible  during  that  time.  3.  It  is  considerably 
more  quick,  perhaps  one-half  more  so,  in  its  increase  than  in 
its  decrease.  4.  Though,  when  at  its  full,  it  may  always  be 
styled  a  star  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  it  does  not  constantly 
attain  the  same  degree  of  brightness,  but  the  differences  are 
very  small.  5.  Its  right  ascension  for  1786  is  13h  18'  4" ; 
and  its  south  declination,  22°  9'  38".  It  is  marked  No.  30 
in  Hevelius’  Catalogue  of  the  Stars ;  from  which  data,  its 
place  may  easily  be  found  on  a  planisphere,  or  on  the  celes¬ 
tial  globe. 

In  tire  year  1600,  G.  Jansonius  discovered  a  variable  star 
in  the  breast  of  the  Swanr  which  was  afterwards  observed  by 
different  astronomers,  and  supposed  to  have  a  period  of  about 
ten  years.  The  results  of  Mr.  Pigot’s  calculations  from  the 
observations  of  former  astronomers  are — 1.  That  it  continues 
in  full  lustre  for  five  years.  2.  It  decreases  rapidly  for  two 
years  3.  It  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  for  four  years.  4. 
It  increases  slowly  during  seven  years.  5.  All  these  changes 
are  completed  in  eighteen  years.  6.  It  was  at  its  minimum 
at  the  end  of  the  year  1663.  7.  It  does  not  always  increase 

to  the  same  degree  of  brightness,  being  sometimes  of  the 
third,  and  at  others  only  of  the  sixth  magnitude.  “  I  am 
entirely  ignorant,”  says  Mr.  Pigot,  “  whether  it  is  subject  to 
the  same  changes  in  this  century,  having  not  met  with  any 
series  of  observations  upon  it;  but  if  the  above  conjectures 
are  right,  it  will  be  at  its  minimum  in  a  very  few  years.  Since 
November,  1781,  to  the  year  1786,  I  have  constantly  seen  it 
of  the  sixth  magnitude,  though  I  suspect  that  in  1785-6.  it 
had  ra  her  decreased.”  This  star  is  near  Gamma  ir  Ine 
Swan’s  breast:  it  varies  from  the  third  to  the  sixth,  sevm.wi, 

8* 


90 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  VARIABLE  STARS. 


Sic.  magnitudes.  Its  right  ascension  is  20b  9'  54  north 
declination,  37°  22'  37". 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  changeable  stars  is 
that  called  Algol ,  in  the  head  of  Medusa,  in  the  constellation 
Perseus.  It  had  long  since  been  known  to  appear  of  different 
magnitudes  at  different  times  ;  but  its  period  was  first  ascer¬ 
tained  by  John  Goodricke,  Esq.,  of  York,  who  began  to 
observe  it  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1783.  It  changes 
continually  from  the  first  or  second  to  the  fourth  magnitude ; 
and  the  time  which  elapses  from  one  greatest  diminution  to 
the  other  was  found  in  1783  to  be,  at  a  mean,  2  days,  2C 
hours,  49  minutes.  The  change  is  thus — during  four  hours 
it  gradually  diminishes  in  lustre ;  during  the  succeeding  four 
hours  it  recovers  its  first  magnitude  by  a  like  gradual  increase ; 
and  during  the  remaining  part  of  the  period,  namely,  2  days, 
12  hours,  42  minutes,  it  invariably  preserves  its  greatest 
lustre  ;  after  the  expiration  of  which  its  diminution  again 
commences.  According  to  Mr.  Pigot,  who  has  made  many 
observations  on  such  stars,  and  paid  particular  attention  to  the 
subject,  the  degree  of  brightness  of  this  star  when  at  its 
minimum  is  variable  at  different  periods ;  and  he  is  of  the 
same  opinion  in  regard  to  its  brightness  when  at  its  full ;  but 
whether  these  differences  return  regularly  or  not  has  not  been 
determined.  The  right  ascension  of  Algol,  or  j3  Persei ,  for 
1786,  is  2h  54'  19" ;  and  its  north  declination,  40°  &  58".  It 
is  situated  12°  east  of  Almaach ,  in  the  foot  of  Andromeda, 
and  may  be  known  by  means  of  three  stars  of  the  fourth 
magnitude  lying  a  few  degrees  south-west  of  it,  and  forming 
a  small  triangle.  It  comes  to  the  meridian  on  the  21st  De¬ 
cember,  about  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening ;  but  as  it  continues 
above  the  horizon  at  least  twenty  hours  out  of  the  twenty- 
four,  it  may  be  seen  every  evening  from  August  to  May. 

Another  variable  star  is  to  be  found  in  the  neck  of  the 
Swan.  The  period  of  this  star  had  been  settled  by  Maraldi 
and  Cassini  at  405  days ;  but  from  a  mean  of  the  observations 
of  Mr.  Pigot,  it  appears  to  be  only  392,  or  at  most  396^  days. 
The  particulars  relating  to  it  are, — 1.  When  at  its  full  bright 
ness,  it  undergoes  no  perceptible  change  for  a  fortnight.  2 
It  is  about  three  and  a  half  months  in  increasing  from  the 
eleventh  magnitude  to  its  full  brightness,  and  the  same  in 
decreasing ;  for  which  reason  it  may  be  considered  as  invisi 
ble  during  six  months.  3.  It  does  not  always  attain  the  sam 
degree  of  lustre,  being  sometimes  of  the  fifth  and  sometimes 
of  the  seventh  magnitude.  The  right  ascension  of  this  star  i 
19h  42'  21";  and  its  north  declination,  32°  22'  58".  It  i 


DESCRIPTIONS  OP  VARIABLE  STARS. 


91 


situated  in  the  neck,  nearly  equi-distant  from  Beta  and 
Gamma ,  and  south  by  west  from  Deneb  Cygni,  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  about  twelve  degrees,  and  is  marked  Chi. 

The  star  Eta  Antinoi  is  another  star  of  this  description, 
whose  variation  and  period  were  discovered  by  Mr.  Pigot  in 
1785.  From  his  corrected  observations,  he  concludes  that  it 
continues  at  its  greatest  brightness  forty  hours  without  de¬ 
creasing  ;  it  is  sixty-six  hours  after  it  begins  to  decrease  be¬ 
fore  it  comes  to  its  full  diminution ;  after  which  it  continues 
stationary  for  thirty  hours  more ;  and  then  increases  for 
thirty-six  hours.  In  every  period  it  seems  to  acquire  its  full 
brightness,  and  to  be  equally  decreased.  Its  period  therefore 
is  seven  days,  four  hours  ;  and  its  greatest  and  least  variation 
is  from  the  third  to  the  fifth  magnitude.  Its  right  ascension 
is  19h  41'  34" ;  and  its  north  declination  0°  28'  14".  It  is 
about  eight  degrees  south  from  Jiltair ,  the  principal  star  in 
the  constellation  Aquila. 

The  above  descriptions  may  suffice  as  specimens  of  the 
phenomena  of  variable  stars.  There  are  about  seven  or  eight 
other  stars  which  have  been  observed  to  be  certainly  variable, 
among  which  are  the  following : — A  star  in  the  N orthem 
Crown,  whose  right  ascension  is  15h40'  11";  north  declination, 
28°  49'  30" ;  and  period,  10^  months.  A  star  in  Hercules,  whose 
right  ascension  is  17h  4'  54" ;  north  declination,  14°  38' ;  and 
period  of  variation,  60j  days.  A  star  in  Sobieski’s  Shield, 
whose  right  ascension  is  18h  36'  38" ;  south  declination,  5°  56' ; 
and  period,  62  days.  The  star  Beta  Lyrae — right  ascension,  18h 
42'  11"  ;  north  declination,  33°  7'  46" ;  greatest  and  least  varia¬ 
tion,  3, 4,  5 ;  supposed  period,  6  days,  9  hours.  The  star  Delta 
Cephei ,  whose  period  is  5  days,  8£  hours ;  right  ascension, 
22h  21';  and  north  declination,  57°  5 O'.  With  several  others. 

Besides  these,  wdiose  variations  and  periods  have  been  de¬ 
termined,  there  are  about  thirty-seven  other  stars,  which  are, 
with  good  reason,  suspected  to  be  variable,  but  whose  periods 
of  change  have  not  yet  been  ascertained,  on  account  of  the 
want  of  a  sufficient  number  of  observers,  who  might  devote 
their  attention  more  particularly  to  this  department  of  astrono¬ 
mical  observation.  For  example,  the  star  Pollux ,  or  Beta 
Gemini,  is  suspected  to  change  from  the  first  to  the  third  mag¬ 
nitude. 

When  contemplating  such  changes  among  bodies  so  im¬ 
mensely  distant,  and  of  so  vast  magnitude,  we  are  naturally 
led  to  inquire  into  the  causes  which  produce  those  phenomena. 
Our  ignorance,  however,  of  the  precise  nature  and  constitution 
of  those  remote  bodies,  and  of  the  scenes  and  circumstances 


92  CONJECTURES  RESPECTING  VARIABLE  STARS. 


in  which  they  may  be  placed,  prevent  us  from  forming  any 
definite  or  satisfactory  conclusions.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  opinions  which  have  been  thrown  out  on  this  subject 
It  has  been  supposed  that  portions  of  the  surfaces  of  these  stars 
are  covered  with  large  black  spots,  which,  during  the  diurnal 
rotation  of  the  star,  present  themselves  under  various  angles, 
and  thus  produce  a  gradual  variation  in  its  brilliancy.  Sir  W. 
Herschel  says,  “  Such  a  motion  may  be  as  evidently  proved  as 
the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth.  Dark  spots,  or  large  por¬ 
tions  of  the  surface  less  luminous  than  the  rest,  turned  alter¬ 
nately  in  certain  directions,  either  towards  or  from  us,  will 
account  for  all  the  phenomena  of  periodical  changes  in  the 
lustre  of  the  stars  so  satisfactorily,  that  we  certainly  need  not 
look  for  any  other  cause.”  Sir  Isaac  Newton  thought  that  the 
sudden  blaze  of  some  stars  may  have  been  occasioned  by 
“the  falling  of  a  comet  into  them,  by  which  means  they  would 
be  enabled  to  cast  a  prodigious  light  for  a  little  time,  after 
which  they  would  gradually  return  to  their  former  state.” 
But  we  know  too  little  about  the  nature  of  comets  to  be  able 
to  determine  what  effect  they  would  produce  in  such  a  case, 
nor  are  we  certain  that  such  bodies  are  connected  with  other 
systems.  If  the  fixed  stars  be  nearly  of  the  same  nature  as 
the  sun,  it  is  highly  improbable  that  any  such  effect  would  be 
produced  even  although  a  comet  were  to  fall  into  its  luminous 
atmosphere,  as  that  atmosphere  appears  to  have  nothing  in  it 
that  would  take  fire  by  the  approach  of  any  extraneous  body, 
or  that  would  “blaze”  like  combustible  substances  on  the 
earth.  The  blaze,  if  such  an  effect  were  to  take  place,  would 
scarcely  be  distinguishable  from  our  globe,  and  much  less 
from  a  distant  system.  Maupertius,  in  a  “Dissertation  on  the 
Figures  of  the  Celestial  Bodies,”  is  of  opinion  that  some  stars, 
by  their  prodigious  quick  rotation  on  their  axes,  may  not  only 
assume  the  figures  of  oblate  spheroids,  but  that,  by  the  great 
centrifugal  force  arising  from  such  rotations,  they  may  be¬ 
come  of  the  figures  of  millstones,  or  be  reduced  to  flat  circu¬ 
lar  planes,  so  thin  as  to  be  quite  invisible  when  their  edges 
are  turned  towards  us,  as  Saturn’s  ring  is  in  such  positions. 
And  when  any  eccentric  planets  or  comets  go  round  any  fixed 
star,  in  orbits  much  inclined  to  its  equator,  the  attraction  of 
the  planets  or  comets  in  their  perihelions  must  alter  the  incli¬ 
nation  of  the  axis  of  that  star;  on  which  account  it  will  appear 
more  or  less  large  and  luminous,  as  its  broad  side  is  turned 
more  or  less  towards  us.  This  opinion,  at  best,  I  consider  as 
having  a  very  small  degree  of  probability,  and  almost  quite 
untenable.  Mr.  Dunn,  in  a  paper  in  Vol.  52  of  the  “Philo- 


probable  causes  op  variable  stars. 


93 


sophical  Transactions,”  supposes  that  the  interposition  of 
some  gross  atmosphere  may  solve  the  phenomena  under  con¬ 
sideration.  44  The  appearance  of  new  stars,”  says  he,  44  and 
the  disappearance  of  others,  possibly  may  be  occasioned  by 
the  interposition  of  such  an  etherial  medium  within  their  re¬ 
spective  orbs  as  either  admits  light  to  pass  freely  or  wholly 
absorbs  it  at  certain  times,  whilst  light  is  constantly  pursuing 
its  journey  through  the  vast  regions  of  space.” 

Whatever  opinions  we  may  adopt  on  this  subject,  it  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  the  regular  succession  of  the  variations  of  periodical 
stars  preclude  the  idea  of  their  being  destroyed.  It  is  like¬ 
wise  evident  that  motion  of  some  kind  or  other,  either  in  the 
stars  themselves  or  in  some  bodies  either  directly  or  remotely 
connected  with  them,  must  be  one  of  the  causes  of  the  phe¬ 
nomena  in  question ;  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  different 
causes  in  different  instances  may  operate  in  producing  the 
effects.  It  does  not  appear  to  me  probable  that  the  cause 
which  produces  the  variation  in  the  case  of  Delta  Cephei , 
whose  period  is  only  5  days,  8^  hours,  is  the  same  which 
produces  all  the  variety  of  change  which  happens  in  the  star 
Gamma  in  the  Swan’s  breast,  whose  periodical  changes  are 
completed  only  in  eighteen  years.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  a 
rotation  round  an  axis,  which  has  the  effect  of  presenting 
different  sides  of  the  star  of  more  or  less  degrees  of  obscurity 
or  brightness  to  the  eye  of  a  spectator,  will  account  for  the 
phenomena  of  such  stars  as  Eta  Antinoi  and  Delta  Cephei; 
but  it  does  not  appear  probable  that  a  motion  of  rotation  is  so 
slow  in  any  of  these  bodies  as  to  occupy  a  period  of  eighteen 
years,  as  in  the  case  of  the  star  in  the  breast  of  the  Swan. 

I  am  disposed  to  consider  it  as  highly  probable  that  the  in¬ 
terposition  of  the  opaque  bodies  of  large  planets  revolving 
around  such  stars  may,  in  some  cases,  account  for  the  pheno¬ 
mena.  It  is  true  that  the  planets  connected  with  the  solar 
system  are  so  small  in  comparison  of  the  sun  that  their  inter¬ 
position  between  that  orb  and  a  spectator  at  an  immense  dis¬ 
tance  would  produce  no  sensible  effect.  But  we  have  no  rea¬ 
son  to  conclude  that  in  all  other  systems  the  planets  are 
formed  in  the  same  proportion  to  their  central  orbs  as  ours ; 
but,  from  the  variety  we-  perceive  in  every  part  of  nature  both 
in  heaven  and  earth,  we  have  reason  to  conclude  that  every 
system  of  the  universe  is  in  some  respect  different  from 
another.  There  is  no  improbability  in  admitting  that  the  pla¬ 
nets  which  revolve  round  some  of  the  stars  may  be  so  large  as 
to  bear  a  considerable  proportion  (perhaps  one-half  or  one- 
third)  to  the  diameters  of  the  orbs  around  which  they  revolve; 


94  PROBABLE  CAUSES  OF  VARIABLE  STARS. 

in  which  case,  if  the  plane  of  their  orbit  lie  nearly  in  the  line 
of  our  vision,  they  would  in  certain  parts  of  their  revolutions 
interpose  between  our  eye  and  the  stars,  so  as  to  hide  for  a 
time  a  portion  of  their  surfaces  from  our  view,  while  in  that 
part  of  their  orbits  which  is  next  the  earth.  Such  a  supposi¬ 
tion  is  by  no  means  inconsistent  with  the  operation  of  the 
law  of  universal  gravitation ;  for  although  such  planets  bore  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  size  of  their  central  luminaries,  yet 
we  have  only  to  suppose  that  their  density  is  very  small. 
They  may  be  globes  whose  central  parts  are  devoid  of  solid 
matter,  consisting  only  of  a  solid  external  shell  for  the  support 
of  inhabitants,  as  is  probably  the  case  with  the  planet  Saturn, 
whose  density  is  only  equal  to  that  of  cork; 

A  planet  about  the  size  we  have  now  supposed  revolving 
around  a  star  would,  in  a  great  measure,  account  for  the  phe¬ 
nomena  presented  by  Algol.  This  star  accomplishes  the  pe¬ 
riod  of  its  variations  in  2  days  and  nearly  21  hours.  During 
or  4  hours  it  gradually  diminishes  in  lustre,  and  during  the 
succeeding  four  hours  it  gradually  recovers  its  first  magnitude. 
Throughout  the  remaining  part  of  the  period — namely,  2  days, 
12  hours,  42  minutes,— it  invariably  preserves  its  greatest 
lustre ;  so  that  the  time  of  its  being  diminished  in  lustre  is 
only  about  the  ninth  part  of  its  whole  period  of  variation. 
Now  supposing  a  planet  about  half  the  diameter  of  the  star 
revolving  around  Algol,  it  would  intercept  a  large  portion  of 


Fig.  11. 


its  surface  when  it  passed  between  our  eye  and  the  star,  as  at 
a  b ,  (fig.  11,)  where  the  white  circular  ring  represents  the 


PROBABLE  CAUSES  OF  VARIABLE  STARS.  95 

surface  of  the  star  partly  covered  by  the  planet.  Its  lustre 
would  begin  to  diminish  when  the  planet  entered  on  its  edge 
at  d,  and  it  would  again  resume  its  full  brightness  when  going 
oifat  c,  the  dark  side  of  the  planet  being  of  course  turned  to 
our  eye;  and  during  the  remaining  part  of  its  revolution  it 
would  appear  in  its  brightest  lustre.  The  regularity  of  the 
changes  of  this  star  admits  of  the  supposition  now  made,  and 
evidently  requires  a  regular  motion  of  some  kind  or  other, 
either  in  the  star  itself  or  in  some  body  connected  with  it,  in 
order  to  produce  the  phenomena.  Perhaps,  in  the  case  of 
some  of  the  variable  stars,  we  might  suppose  several  large 
planets  in  succession  to  pass  between  our  eye  and  the  star  to 
account  for  the  appearance  they  present — a  supposition  which 
perfectly  agrees  with  the  idea  of  a  system  of  revolving  bodies. 

As  it  is  not  probable  that  the  changes  of  all  such  stars 
arise  from  the  same  cause,  what  should  hinder  us  from  sup¬ 
posing  that  there  are  stars  or  suns  that  revolve  around  planets 
of  a  size  immensely  greater , — the  planets,  for  example,  bear¬ 
ing  a  similar  proportion  to  the  stars  as  the  sun  bears  to  Jupi¬ 
ter  ?  Considering  the  immense  variety  of  celestial  mechanism 
throughout  the  universe,  there  can  be  no  great  improbability 
in  such  a  supposition.  The  case  of  double  stars  demonstrates 
that  one  sun  actually  revolves  round  another  ;  and  why  may 
not  a  sun  revolve  around  a  central  planet,  whose  surface  may 
contain  forty  times  the  area  of  all  the  planets  of  our  system, 
in  order  to  distribute  light  and  heat,  and  other  beneficial 
influences,  to  its  numerous  population  ?  No  violation  of  the 
law  of  universal  gravitation  is  implied  in  such  a  supposition ; 
and  the  Almighty  is  not  confined  to  one  mode  of  arranging 
systems  and  worlds.  Supposing,  then,  such  an  arrangement 
to  exist,  it  might  account  for  the  phenomena  of  some  of  the 
variable  stars,  particularly  those  which  remain  invisible  for  a 
certain  period.  Such  are  some  of  those  formerly  noticed,  as 
the  star  in  Hydra,  and  that  in  the  breast  of  the  Swan,  and 
particularly  a  star  in  the  N orthern  Crown,  whose  right  ascen- 
is  15h  4 O',  north  declin.  28°  49^',  and  period  10^  months,  and 
which  decreases  from  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  and  tenth  magni¬ 
tude.  It  attained  its  full  brightness  about  the  11th  of  August, 
1795,  and  continued  so  for  three  weeks ;  in  3^  weeks  it 
decreased  to  the  tenth  magnitude,  and  a  few  days  afterwards 
disappeared.  Afer  being  a  considerable  time  invisible,  in 
April,  1796,  it  again  appeared ;  on  the  7th  of  May,  it  reached 
the  ninth  magnitude,  and  then  gradually  attained  its  full 
brightness.  If,  then,  such  a  star  was  revolving  round  a  very 
large  central  planet,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  in  the  more 


96 


CHANGES  AMONG  THE  FIXED  STARS. 


distant  part  of  its  course  it  might  be  hid  from  our  view,  either 
in  whole  or  in  part,  by  the  interposition  of  the  opaque  central 
body,  as  is  obvious  from  an  inspection  of  figure  12.  And  as 
the  star  now  alluded  to  never  exceeds  in  lustre  a  star  of  the 
sixth  magnitude,  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  is  one  of  the 
inferior  order  of  those  luminous  orbs  which  may  revolve 
round  an  opaque  body  of  superior  magnitude. 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  conceivable  causes  which  may 
produce  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars,  although  other  causes 
may  in  some  cases  exist  of  which  we  have  no  conception. 
These  phenomena  evidently  indicate  that  motions  and  revolu¬ 
tions  of  various  kinds  are  going  forward  throughout  the 
stellar  regions ;  that  the  Almighty  is  superintending  the  move- 

Fig.  12. 


ments  of  those  provinces  of  his  empire,  and  that  all  his 
agencies  have  a  respect  to  the  order  and  the  happiness  of 
intelligent  existence. 

Besides  the  periodical  variations  to  which  we  have  now 
adverted,  there  are  several  other  striking  changes  which  have 
been  observed  in  the  starry  regions  which  deserve  our  atten¬ 
tion,  and  which  I  shall  briefly  notice. 

1.  Several  stars  which  were  formerly  distinctly  visible,  and 
are  marked  in  different  catalogues,  are  now  wholly  lost.  The 
following  are  a  few  instances.  M.  Montanere,  professor  of 
mathematics  at  Bononia,  in  a  letter  to  the  Koyal  Society,  of 
date  April,  1670,  gives  the  following  statement : — w  There  are 
now  wanting  in  the  heavens  two  stars  of  the  second  magni¬ 
tude,  in  the  stern  and  yard  of  the  ship  Argo.  I  and  others 


CHANGES  AMONG  THE  FIXED  STARS.  97 

observed  them  in  the  year  1664,  upon  occasion  of  the  comet 
that  appeared  that  year.  When  they  disappeared  first  I  know 
not ;  only  I  am  sure  that,  in  the  year  1668,  upon  the  10th  of 
April,  there  was  not  the  least  glimpse  of  them  to  be  seen, 
and  yet  the  other  stars  about  them,  of  the  third  and  fourth 
magnitudes,  remained  the  same.  I  have  observed  many  more 
changes  among  the  fixed  stars,  even  to  the  number  of  an 
hundred,  though  none  of  them  are  so  great  as  those  I  have 
shewed.”  In  1670,  Anthelm  discovered  a  star  of  the  third 
magnitude  in  the  head  of  the  Swan,  which  after  becoming 
completely  invisible,  re-appeared,  and  after  undergoing  one  or 
two  singular  fluctuations  of  light  during  two  years,  at  last 
died  away  entirely,  and  has  not  since  been  seen.  Sir  William 
Herschel  gives  a  list  of  thirteen  stars,  most  of  which  are  sup¬ 
posed  to  be  lost.  Of  these  are  the  following  : — Nos.  80  and 
81  of  Hercules,  both  of  the  fourth  magnitude ;  the  19th  of 
Perseus,  of  the  sixth  magnitude ;  and  the  108  Pisces,  are 
judged  to  be  wholly  lost.  The  stars  73,  74  Cancer,  in  the 
southern  claw  of  the  Crab,  of  the  sixth  magnitude,  are  either 
lost  or  have  suffered  such  great  changes  that  they  can  no 
longer  be  found.  On  this  subject  Sir  John  Herschel  states- — 
w  The  star  42  Virginis  is  inserted  in  the  catalogue  of  the  As¬ 
tronomical  Society  from  Zach’s  Zodiacal  Catalogue.  I  missed 
it  on  the  9th  of  May,  1828,  and  have  since  repeatedly  had  its 
place  in  the  field  of  view  of  my  twenty  feet  reflector  without 
perceiving  it,  unless  it  be  one  of  two  equal  stars  of  the  ninth 
magnitude  very  nearly  in  the  place  it  must  have  occupied.” 

2.  Some  stars  have  changed  their  magnitudes  since  the 
beginning  of  last  century.  A  considerable  number  of  stars 
marked  by  Flamstead,  in  his  Historia  Celestis ,  are  now  found 
to  be  of  different  magnitudes  since  the  period  in  which  he 
observed  the  heavens  and  formed  his  catalogue.  For  exam¬ 
ple  ;  the  1st  and  2nd  of  Hydra  are  now  only  of  the  eighth 
or  ninth  magnitude  instead  of  the  fourth,  as  they  are  marked 
by  Flamstead.  The  31st  and  34th  of  Draco  have  changed 
greatly;  the  31st  has  increased  from  the  seventh  to  the 
fourth,  and  the  34th  has  diminished  from  the  fourth  to  the 
sixth  or  seventh  magnitude.  The  38th  Perseus,  instead  of 
the  sixth,  has  now  increased  to  the  fourth  magnitude.  About 
thirty  stars  of  this  description  are  reckoned  by  Sir  W.  Her¬ 
schel  to  have  changed  their  magnitudes. 

3.  There  are  stars  unknown  to  the  observers  of  former 
times  which  have  recently  become  visible.  The  following, 
among  others  of  this  description,  have  been  marked  by  Sir 
W.  Herschel : — *1.  A  star  in  the  end  of  the  Lizard’s  tail,  of 

Tol.  VIII.  9 


98 


NEW  CREATIONS. 


the  fourth  or  fifth  magnitude,  which  is  not  recorded  by  Flam- 
stead,  although  he  notices  one  in  that  constellation  less  con¬ 
spicuous.  2.  A  star  near  the  head  of  Cepheus.  3.  A  con¬ 
siderable  star  in  a  direction  from  the  68th  to  the  61st  of 
Gemini.  4.  A  star  of  considerable  brightness  preceding  the 
1st  of  the  Little  Horse.  5.  A  remarkable  star  between  j3  and 
8  Hydrase.  6.  A  star  near  8  Hercules,  of  the  fourth  or  fifth 
magnitude,  with  several  others.  Similar  observations  appear 
to  have  been  made  about  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  eighteenth  centuries,  by  Cassini  and  others. 
Cassini  discovered  a  new  star  of  the  fourth,  and  two  of  the 
fifth  magnitude  in  Cassiopeia ;  two  in  the  constellation  Erida- 
nus,  one  of  the  fourth,  the  other  of  the  fifth  magnitude ;  and 
four  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  magnitude  near  the  north  pole, 
which  had  not  been  perceived  at  a  former  period. 

Such  changes  in  bodies  so  far  removed  from  our  system, 
and  of  magnitudes  so  enormous  as  the  least  of  them  must  be, 
naturally  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  revolutions  of  vast 
extent,  and  operations  conducted  on  a  most  magnificent  scale, 
are  incessantly  going  forward  in  those  remote  and  unexplor- 
able  regions.  In  the  case  of  stars  which  have  totally  disap¬ 
peared,  we  are  led  to  conclude,  either  that  some  vast  and 
important  change  has  taken  place  in  the  constitution  of  certain 
worlds  or  systems,  or  that  the  central  luminaries  of  such 
systems,  with  all  their  surrounding  planets,  have  been  trans¬ 
ported  by  some  unknown  and  almighty  agency  into  more 
distant  regions  of  space,  where  they  may  remain  for  ever  hid 
from  our  view.  As  to  those  stars  which  have  changed  their 
magnitudes  within  the  last  century,  they  may  either  be  ap¬ 
proaching  to  or  receding  from  the  system  to  which  we  belong, 
or  their  native  brightness  may  be  either  increasing  or  dimi¬ 
nishing  from  causes  with  which  we  are  unacquainted;  or  some 
ethereal  mediums  of  a  peculiar  nature  may  be  interposed 
between  our  sight  and  those  distant  orbs.  With  respect  to 
stars  unknown  to  former  observers  which  have  recently  be¬ 
come  visible,  it  is  not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  these  are 
new  systems  recently  launched  from  the  creating  hand  of  the 
Omnipotent,  to  diversify  his  creation  and  augment  the  glories 
of  his  empire,  as  well  as  to  distribute  happiness  among  new 
orders  of  sensitive  and  intelligent  existence.  We  ought  not 
to  imagine  that  the  work  of  creation,  considered  as  a  whole, 
is  yet  finished,  or  ever  will  be  finished  during  an  indefinite 
lapse  of  ages.  When  it  is^  stated  by  the  inspired  writer  of  the 
book  of  Genesis  that  “God  rested  from  all  his  work,”  we 
are  to  understand  the  express  he  cely  in  reference  to  the 


OMNIPOTENT  ENERGIES. 


99 


formation  or  arrangement  of  the  world  in  which  we  reside 
into  the  form  and  order  in  which  we  now  behold  it ;  for  to 
this  arrangement  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  the  descriptions  of  the 
sacred  historian  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  refer.  It  is  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  idea  of  a  Being  possessed  of 
omnipotent  power,  boundless  goodness,  and  endless  duration, 
that  his  creating  energies  should  never  cease  in  their  opera¬ 
tion  throughout  all  the  periods  of  an  interminable  existence ; 
and  the  phenomena  to  which  we  refer  are  a  strong  presump¬ 
tion,  if  not  a  demonstrative  evidence,  of  a  continued  series 
of  creations.  These  new  creations  may  be  bursting  forth  in 
the  remote  spaces  of  the  universe,  in  various  degrees  of 
splendour  and  magnificence,  to  an  extent  of  which  we  have 
no  conception  ;  and  from  the  character  and  perfections  of  the 
Divinity,  we  have  reason  to  believe  that  such  processes  will 
be  incessantly  goingforward  throughout  all  the  ages  of  eternity. 

Whatever  opinions  we  may  be  disposed  to  form  as  to  the 
phenomena  to  which  we  have  adverted,  they  tend  to  convey 
to  the  reflecting  mind  magnificent  views  of  the  physical 
energies  of  the  Almighty,  in  arranging  the  different  depart¬ 
ments  of  his  boundless  dominions,  and  accomplishing  the 
purposes  and  plans  of  his  moral  government ;  and  they 
naturally  excite  in  the  mind  a  desire  of  future  existence,  and 
an  ardent  wish  to  behold  the  veil  which  now  intercepts  our 
views  of  these  glorious  orbs  withdrawn,  and  to  contemplate 
the  scene  of  divine  operation  in  all  its  splendour  and  magni¬ 
ficence. 

At  first  view,  it  may  appear  a  circumstance  of  comparative 
insignificance  to  behold  a  small  star,  scarcely  distinguishable 
to  the  eye,  waxing  brighter,  or  growing  dimmer,  or  vanishing 
altogether  from  the  view  ;  or  a  star  appearing  in  a  point  of 
the  heavens  which  was  unoccupied  before.  The  distant  blaze 
of  a  field  of  furze,  the  falling  of  a  tower,  or  the  conflagration 
of  a  cottage,  may  to  some  appear  events  of  far  greater  interest 
and  importance  ;  but  such  events  in  the  heavens  as  those  to 
which  we  refer  may  be  connected  with  scenes  as  astonish¬ 
ing — though  perhaps  not  so  tremendous — as  if  the  sun  were 
shorn  of  his  rays  and  turned  into  darkness,  and  this  earth  and 
all  the  planetary  globes  shattered  to  their  centres  and  wrapped 
in  flames ;  or,  as  if  a  new  sun  of  superior  magnitude  were  to 
appear  in  our  system,  and  to  illuminate  our  globes  with  a  new 
species  of  light  and  colours.  Objects  at  a  great  distance  from 
the  observer  make  little  impression  on  the  organs  of  vision, 
and  seldom  affect  the  mind.  A  fleet  of  the  largest  ships  of 
war  viewed  from  the  top  of  a  tower  at  fifty  miles  distance 


100 


VARIETY  OF  NATURE. 


appears  only  like  a  few  almost  undistinguishable  specks  on 
the  verge  of  the  horizon,  while  the  fate  of  individuals,  families, 
communities,  and  even  empires,  may  depend  upon  the  en¬ 
counter  in  which  they  may  be  engaged.  The  conflagration 
of  a  city  of  ten  hundred  thousands  of  inhabitants  may  appear 
at  a  distance  as  only  a  faint  glimpse  of  light  in  one  point  of 
the  horizon,  while  palaces,  and  temples,  and  thousands  of 
splendid  fabrics  are  turned  into  smoking  ruins,  and  multitudes 
are  thrown  into  the  utmost  consternation,  and  perishing  in 
the  flames.  The  burning  of  the  city  of  Moscow,  as  beheld 
from  the  moon  when  the  dark  side  of  the  earth  was  presented 
to  that  orb,  would  appear  only  like  a  dim  lucid  speck,  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  other  parts  of  the  earth’s  surface. 
And  if  this  be  the  case  in  respect  to  objects  within  such 
limited  distances,  what  astonishing  scenes  may  be  the  result 
of  what  we  perceive  in  bodies  many  thousands  of  millions 
of  miles  distant,  when  we  behold  them  disappearing  to  our 
view,  or  even  when  we  perceive  their  light  only  increasing  or 
diminishing  ?  Here  imagination  is  left  to  fill  up  the  picture 
which  the  organs  of  vision  so  dimly  perceive.  We  are  to 
consider  that  the  orbs  to  which  we  allude  are  luminous  globes 
of  immense  size, — that  they  are  doubtless  encircled  with  a 
retinue  of  worlds  replenished  with  inhabitants, — that  what  to 
us  appears  a  slight  change  of  aspect  may  to  them  be  the  com¬ 
mencement  of  an  era  of  new  glory  and  splendour, — that  the 
Almighty  rules  over  those  distant  regions  as  well  as  u  among 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,” — and  that  all  the  changes  which 
happen  among  them  are  in  unison  with  his  eternal  designs, 
and  subserve  the  ends  of  his  universal  government. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ON  DOUBLE  STARS  AND  BINARY  SYSTEMS. 

In  whatever  part  of  creation  we  survey  the  operations  of 
the  Almighty,  we  uniformly  find  the  characteristic  of  variety 
impressed  upon  all  his  works.  This  is  evident  in  all  the 
kingdoms  of  nature  connected  with  our  globe,  where  the 
multitude  and  diversity  of  animals,  vegetables,  and  minerals, 
cannot  but  strike  the  eye  even  of  the  most  superficial  ob¬ 
server.  Though  the  same  general  laws  appear  to  pervade  the 
material  universe,  so  far  as  our  observation  extends,  yet  these 


DOUBLE  STARS. 


101 


laws  are  so  comprehensive  and  so  endlessly  modified  as  to 
produce  an  immense  variety  of  minute  and  wonderful  effects. 
It  is  more  difficult  to  trace  the  operation  of  these  laws  in  the 
remote  spaces  of  the  universe  than  in  our  terrestrial  sphere. 
But  even  in  regions  of  creation  immeasurably  distant  we  can 
perceive  the  agency  of  the  same  powers  which  are  at  work 
in  conducting  the  movements  of  our  planetary  system ;  and 
not  only  so,  but  we  can  trace  these  powers,  while  operating 
with  their  native  energy,  wonderfully  modified,  and  producing 
effects  altogether  different  from  those  which  we  experience  in 
the  system  of  which  we  form  a  part,  evidently  indicating  that 
a  variety ,  analogous  to  that  which  we  behold  in  the  scene 
around  us,  marks  the  operations  of  the  Creator  throughout 
the  immensity  of  his  works.  This  will  more  clearly  appear 
in  the  descriptions  we  shall  now  give  of  the  phenomena  of 
double  and  multiple  stars. 

The  phenomena  of  double  stars  do  not  seem  to  have  been 
much  attended  to  till  Sir  W.  Herschel  commenced  his  exten¬ 
sive  observations  on  the  sidereal  heavens.  About  a  century 
ago,  the  astronomers  of  that  period  seem  to  have  been  aware 
that  u  several  stars  which  appear  single  to  the  bare  eye  are 
by  the  telescope  discovered  to  be  double.”  The  principal 
stars  of  this  description  which  they  mention  are, — the  head 
of  Castor,  the  first  in  the  head  of  the  Ram,  the  star  Gamma 
in  the  breast  of  Virgo,  and  the  middle  one  in  the  sword  of 
Orion.  Conceiving  the  fixed  stars  as  bodies  precisely  of  the 
same  nature,  and  that  no  specific  or  diversified  arrangements 
prevailed  among  them,  they  do  not  appear  to  have  entered 
upon  any  minute  surveys,  by  the  telescope,  of  particular 
stars  ;  and  their  idea  respecting  the  double  stars  they  had 
detected  was  merely  this, — that  a  small  star,  at  a  very  remote 
distance  from  another,  might  happen  accidentally  to  lie  nearly 
in  the  same  line  of  vision  as  the  larger  one;  and,  on  this 
ground,  Dr.  Long,  in  his  u  Astronomy,”  shews  how  the 
annual  parallax  would  be  discovered  by  a  star  appearing 
single  at  one  time  of  the  year,  and  double  at  another.  It 
appears  to  have  been  chiefly  with  an  object  of  this  kind  in 
view  that  Sir  William  Herschel  commenced  his  numerous 
observations  in  this  department  of  sidereal  investigation.  But, 
as  we  are  informed  by  his  son,  who  has  distinguished  him¬ 
self  in  an  eminent  manner  by  similar  observations,  he  had 
hardly  entered  on  the  measurements  of  the  angles  of  position, 
and  the  distances  of  double  stars,  before  he  was  diverted  from 
the  original  object  of  his  inquiry  by  phenomena  of  a  very 
unexpected  character,  which  at  once  engrossed  his  whole 

9* 


102 


NUMBER  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


attention.  The  circumstances  alluded  to  shall  be  particularly- 
described  in  the  sequel,  after  I  have  given  a  brief  sketch  of 
the  phenomena  of  double  stars. 

When  a  telescope  of  considerable  power  is  directed  to  cer¬ 
tain  stars  which  appear  single  to  the  naked  eye,  another  star, 
generally  much  smaller  than  that  which  appears  to  the  unas¬ 
sisted  eye,  is  seen  quite  adjacent  to  it,  and  in  some  cases  the 
interval  between  the  two  stars  is  so  small  that  it  requires  a 
very  high  degree  of  light  and  magnifying  power  to  be  able  to 
perceive  that  they  are  two  distinct  bodies.  Only  a  few,  per¬ 
haps  not  exceeding  six  or  eight,  of  these  stars  were  known  to 
the  astronomers  of  the  age  preceding  that  of  Herschel ;  but 
this  illustrious  astronomer,  with  unwearied  perseverance,  de¬ 
tected  no  less  than  500  double  stars,  and  presented  to  the 
Royal  Society  a  list  in  which  their  situation  and  relative  posi¬ 
tions  are  distinctly  marked.  These  observations  of  the  elder 
Herschel  were  followed  up  by  other  observers,  particularly 
by  Sir  J.  Herschel  and  Sir  James  South,  who,  in  the  year 
1824,  soon  after  Sir  W.  Herschel  had  ceased  from  his  labours, 
produced  a  catalogue  of  380  double  stars,  whose  distances 
and  angles  of  position  they  had  determined  with  the  utmost 
accuracy  and  precision.  Sir  J.  South  afterwards  produced  a 
distinct  catalogue  of  480,  and  Sir  J.  Herschel  a  list  of  upwards 
of  3300  of  double  and  triple  stars,  from  his  own  solitary 
observations,  accompanied  with  all  the  micrometrical  mea¬ 
surements.  Struve,  the  celebrated  astronomer  of  Dorpat,  has 
arranged  a  catalogue  of  no  less  than  3000  double  stars ;  and 
before  he  determined  the  characteristics  of  each  of  these,  he 
examined  about  120,000  stars — a  laborious  process,  which 
none  but  an  astronomical  observer  can  duly  appreciate.  Mr. 
Dunlop  has  formed  a  catalogue  of  250  double  stars  in  the 
southern  hemisphere ;  and  Sir  J.  Herschel,  during  his  late 
residence  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has  added  considerably 
to  their  number;  so  that  we  may  now  reckon  about  6000  of 
these  interesting  objects  as  having  already  been  discovered, 
even  making  allowance  that  many  of  these  objects  are  com¬ 
mon  to  the  lists  of  the  observers  now  specified. 

It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  the  phenomena  of  some  of 
the  double  stars  now  alluded  to  may  arise  from  accidental 
proximity ,  the  one  star,  though  far  remote  and  unconnected 
with  the  other,  lying  nearly  in  the  same  visual  line.  Thus, 
the  star  a,  fig.  13,  might  appear  nearly  in  contact  with  the 
star  J,  placed  at  an  immense  distance  beyond  it,  when  viewed 
nearly  in  the  same  straight  line  by  the  eye  at  c,  so  as  to  pro 
duee  the  phenomena  of 


DOUBLE  STARS. 


X03 


Fig.  13. 


d 

b 


e 


a  double  star  at  d  b.  But,  reasoning  a  prion ,  it  appears  in  the 
highest  degree  improbable  that  such  coincidences  should  hap¬ 
pen  in  the  case  of  all,  or  even  of  the  greater  part  of  the  double 
stars  which  have  now  been  discovered ;  and  therefore  Mr. 
Michell,  so  early  as  the  year  1783,  in  a  paper  inserted  in  the 
“Philosophical  Transactions”  for  that  year,  states  it  as  his 
opinion  that  they  are  binary  systems  intimately  connected. 
“  The  very  great  number  of  stars,”  says  he,  “  that  have  been 
discovered  to  be  double,  treble,  8tc.,  particularly  by  Mr.  Her- 
schel,  if  we  apply  the  doctrine  of  chances,  as  I  have  done  in 
my  c  Inquiry  into  the  probable  Parallax  of  the  Fixed  Stars,’ 
published  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1767,  cannot 
leave  a  doubt  with  any  one  properly  acquainted  with  the  force 
of  those  arguments,  that  by  far  the  greatest  part,  if  not  all  of 
them,  are  systems  of  stars  so  near  each  other  as  probably  to 
be  liable  to  be  affected  sensibly  by  their  mutual  gravitation ; 
and  it  is  therefore  not  unlikely  that  the  periods  of  the  revolu¬ 
tions  of  some  of  these  about  their  principals  may  some  time 
or  other  be  discovered.” 

The  prediction  here  announced  by  this  ingenious  gentleman 
has  now  been  fully  realized  by  Sir  William  Herschel  and 
other  astronomers,  and  is  no  longer  a  subject  of  conjecture, 
but  an  ascertained  fact.  This  is  the  discovery  to  which  1 
have  alluded  above,  one  of  the  most  important  and  interesting 
discoveries  which  astronomy  has  unfolded  during  the  present 
age,  and  which  opens  to  our  view  a  new  prospect  of  the  plans 
and  arrangements  of  Infinite  Wisdom. 

Having  made  these  preliminary  remarks,  I  shall  now  pro¬ 
ceed  to  a  more  particular  detail  of  the  facts  which  have  been 
ascertained  respecting  binary  systems. 

When  Sir  W.  Herschel  first  directed  his  attention  to  this 
subject,  in  order  if  possible  to  determine  the  annual  paral¬ 
lax,  he  was  not  a  little  surprised  that,  instead  of  finding,  as  he 
expected,  a  regular  annual  change  of  the  two  stars,  by  one 


104  herschel’s  observations  on 

alternately  shifting  its  position  with  respect  to  the  other, 
which  a  parallax  would  have  produced,  he  observed  in  many 
instances  “  a  regular  progressive  change ,  in  some  cases  bear¬ 
ing  chiefly  on  their  distance,  in  others  on  their  position,  and 
advancing  steadily  in  one  direction,  so  as  clearly  to  indicate 
either  a  real  motion  of  the  stars  themselves,  or  a  general  rec¬ 
tilinear  motion  of  the  sun  and  whole  solar  system,  producing 
a  parallax  of  a  higher  order  than  would  arise  from  the  earth’s 
orbital  motion.”  In  an  elaborate  paper  on  this  subject,  read 
before  the  Royal  Society,  June  9,  1803,  he  considers  spe¬ 
cifically  all  the  motions  and  combinations  of  motion  that  can 
possibly  be  supposed,  in  order  to  account  for  the  phenomena, 
particularly  of  the  double  star  Castor ,  and  satisfactorily  de¬ 
monstrates  that  nothing  but  the  idea  of  the  smaller  star  re¬ 
volving  around  the  larger  in  a  circular  or  elliptical  orbit  will 
solve  the  phenomena  in  question ;  and  this  conclusion  has 
been  amply  confirmed  by  all  succeeding  observations.  Such 
stars  therefore  must  be  considered  as  physically  connected  by 
the  law  of  mutual  gravitation,  so  that  they  describe  orbits 
around  each  other  and  around  their  common  centre  of  gravity, 
and  bear  a  relation  to  each  other  similar  to  that  which  the 
planets  bear  to  our  sun. 

From  the  paper  of  Sir  W.  Herschel  now  referred  to,  I  shall 
select,  as  a  specimen  of  the  motions  of  double  stars,  some  of 
his  observations  of  Castor ,  or  a  Geminorum.  It  appears  that 
Dr.  Bradley  in  the  year  1759  had  observed  the  position  of 
the  two  stars  which  form  this  double  star,  and  communicated 
it  to  Dr.  Maskelyne,  who  made  a  memorandum  of  it,  of  which 
the  following  is  a  copy: — “Double  star  Castor.  No  change 
of  position  of  the  two  stars  ;  the  line  joining  them  at  all  times 
of  the  year ,  parallel  to  the  line  joining  Castor  and  Pollux  in 
the  heavens,  seen  by  the  naked  eye.”  The  object  of  Dr. 
Bradley  in  observing  the  exact  position  of  these  stars  was,  to 
determine  if  any  change  happened  in  their  position  at  oppo¬ 
site  periods  of  the  year,  so  as  to  indicate  an  annual  parallax. 
The  angles  of  position  observed  by  Sir  W.  Herschel  are  as 
follow : — 


Times  of 

Ancr] 

les  of 

the  observations. 

Position. 

November  1,  1759 

...  56° 

32' 

November  5,  1779  .  . 

.  .  .  35 

29 

February  23,  1791 

...  23 

36 

December  15,  1795  . 

...  18 

32 

March  26,  1800  .  . 

.  .  .  14 

3 

December  31,  1801  .  . 

...  12 

12 

DOUBLE  STAR  CASTOR. 


105 


February  28,  1802  ....  12  1 

March  27,  1803  .  10  53 

From  these  observations  it  appears  that  from  the  year  1759, 
when  Dr.  Bradley  observed  the  positions  of  the  two  stars,  to 
the  year  1803,  there  has  been  a  portion  of  an  orbit  described 
by  the  smaller  star  around  the  greater  equal  to  forty-five  de¬ 
grees  and  thirty-nine  minutes ;  and  from  the  time  that  Her- 
schel  commenced  his  observations  in  1779  till  1803,  an  arch 
of  twenty-four  degrees  and  thirty-six  minutes  had  been  passed 
over.  Hence  Sir  VV.  Herschel  concludes — ■“  The  time  of  a 
periodical  revolution  may  now  be  calculated  from  the  arch 
45°  39',  which  has  been  described  in  43  years  and  142  days. 
The  regularity  of  the  motion  gives  us  great  reason  to  conclude 
that  the  orbit  in  which  the  small  star  moves  about  Castor,  or 
rather  the  orbits  in  which  they  both  move  round  their  com¬ 
mon  centre  of  gravity,  are  nearly  circular  and  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  in  which  we  see  them.  If  this  should  be  nearly 
true,  it  follows  that  the  time  of  a  whole  apparent  revolution 
of  the  small  star  round  Castor  will  be  about  342  years  and 
two  months .”  This  subject  may  be  illustrated  to  the  general 
reader  by  the  following  diagram  : — 


106 


PERIODS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


Let  the  small  central  circle  C  represent  the  larger  star  Cas¬ 
tor,  and  D  the  smaller  star,  and  let  the  line  E  F  represent  the 
direction  of  the  two  stars  in  a  line  with  the  star  Pollux  at  22, 
as  observed  by  Dr.  Bradley  in  1759.  In  November,  1779, 
they  were  found  in  the  position  C  22,  twenty-one  degrees 
from  the  position  they  occupied  twenty  years  before;  in 
February,  1791,  they  were  thirty-three  degrees  from  the  same 
position,  &c. ;  and  in  March,  1803,  forty-six  and  a  half  de¬ 
grees  ;  giving  evident  indication  of  a  regular  progressive  mo¬ 
tion  in  a  circle.  Since  1803  its  motion  has  been  regularly 
traced  by  Struve,  Sir  J.  Herschel,  and  Sir  J.  South ;  and  in 
1816  it  was  found  about  57°  degrees  from  its  first  position, 
and  in  1830  about  68°,  still  regularly  progressing.  In  1819, 
the  distance  of  the  small  star  from  Castor  was  five  seconds  and 
a  half,  and  in  1830  it  was  little  more  than  four  seconds  and  a 
half.  Although  Sir  W.  Herschel,  as  above  stated,  conjectured 
the  period  of  revolution  to  be  about  342  years,  yet  later 
astronomers,  from  a  comparison  of  all  the  observations  re¬ 
cently  made,  are  disposed  to  conclude  that  its  period  is  little 
more  than  250  years. 

More  than  fifty  instances  of  changes  in  the  angles  of  posi¬ 
tion  of  double  stars  were  observed  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  be¬ 
sides  those  which  have  been  more  recently  observed  by  his 
son  and  other  astronomers,  most  of  which  indicate  motions 
which  are  regularly  'progressive  ;  but  a  considerable  number 
of  years  must  elapse  before  their  periods  can  be  determined 
with  any  degree  of  accuracy.  The  following  double  stars  are 
considered  as  demonstrative  instances  of  circular  progressive 
motion: — y  Virginis,  £  Ursae  Majoris,  70  Ophiuchi,  a  and 
fj  Coronae,  %  Bootis  Cassiopeiae,  y  Leonis,  £  Herculis,  8 
Cygni,  p  Bootis,  s  4  and  £  5  Lyrae,  •k  Ophiuchi,  ^  Draconis, 
s  Bootis,  and  £  Aquarii.  The  periodic  times  of  some  of  these 
have  been  determined  to  a  near  approximation.  One  of  the 
stars  of  Gamma  Virginis  is  reckoned  to  revolve  about  the 
other  in  the  space  of  629  years  ;  the  small  star  of  Gamma 
Leonis,  in  1200  years ;  the  star  connected  with  Epsilon 
Bootis,  in  1600  years  ;  that  of  61  Cygni,  in  452  years;  that  of 
Sigma  Coronae,  in  287  years ;  that  of  70  Ophiuchi,  as  ascer¬ 
tained  by  Professor  Encke,  in  80  years ;  that  of  Xi  Ursae,  in 
58  years ;  that  of  Zeta  Cancri,  in  55  years  ;  and  that  of  Eta 
Coronae,  in  43  years. 

A  whole  revolution  of  some  of  these  stars  has  been  nearly 
completed  since  observations  began  to  be  made  on  such  objects. 
The  motion  of  the  small  star  of  Xi  Ursae  began  to  be  traced 
about  the  year  1781 ;  in  1819,  it  had  moved  219°  from  its 


PERIODS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


107 


position  in  1781  ;  in  1S30,  it  was  303  from  that  position, 
progressing  in  a  circle ;  and  about  this  time,  or  the  beginning 
of  1840,  it  has  probably  finished  its  orbital  revolution.  The 
star  Eta  Coronae,  whose  period  is  forty-three  years,  has  not 
only  accomplished  a  complete  revolution,  but  is  actually  con¬ 
siderably  advanced  in  its  second  period.  Sir  J.  Herschel, 
during  his  late  sojourn  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  said  to 
have  discovered  in  the  southern  skies,  binary  stars,  whose 
periods  of  revolution  are  even  shorter  than  those  now  stated, 
their  change  of  position  having  been  quite  perceptible  during 
the  three  or  four  years  of  his  residence  in  that  quarter.  Sir 
W.  Herschel,  in  the  paper  to  which  I  have  already  referred, 
states  observations  which  furnish  us  with  a  phenomenon 
which  is  new  in  astronomy — namely,  the  occultation  of  one 
star  by  another.  With  a  power  of  460,  in  July,  1782,  the 
stars  of  Zeta  Herculis  were  then  half  the  diameter  of  the 
small  star  asunder ;  in  1795,  he  found  it  difficult  to  perceive 
the  small  star  with  the  same  power ;  in  1802,  the  small  star 
could  no  longer  be  perceived,  but  the  apparent  disc  of  the 
large  star  seemed  to  be  a  little  lengthened  one  way.  With 
his  ten  feet  telescope,  and  a  power  of  600,  he  found  it  to 
have  the  appearance  of  a  wedge-formed  star.  On  the  11th 
of  April,  1803,  he  examined  the  apparent  disc  with  a  power 
of  2140,  and  found  it,  as  before,  a  little  distorted,  but 
there  could  not  be  more  than  about  three-fourths  of  the  apparent 
diameter  of  the  small  star  wanting  to  a  complete  occultation. 
w  Most  probably,”  he  observes,  u  the  path  of  the  motion  is  not 
quite  central ;  if  so,  the  disc  will  remain  a  little  distorted 
during  the  whole  time  of  the  conjunction.”  This  phenomenon 
evidently  demonstrates  the  fact  of  circular  orbital  motion,  per¬ 
formed  in  a  plane  nearly  parallel  to  our  line  of  vision. 

The  star  Gamma  Virginis  has  presented  phenomena  nearly 
similar  to  that  of  Zeta  Herculis.  This  star  is  remarkable 
both  for  the  length  of  its  period,  the  rapid  increase  of  the 
angular  motion  of  the  two  stars  of  which  it  is  composed,  and 
particularly  the  great  diminution  of  their  apparent  distance. 
It  has  been  known  as  a  double  star  for  at  least  120  years. 
The  two  stars  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  which  are  nearly 
equal,  were  so  far  apart  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
that  they  were  marked  in  Mayer’s  catalogue  as  two  distinct 
stars,  so  that  any  moderately  good  telescope  would  have 
shewn  their  separation,  being  at  that  period  about  seven 
seconds  distant  from  each  other.  Since  that  time  they  have 
been  constantly  approaching,  and  in  1833  were  scarcely  more 
than  a  single  second  asunder;  so  that  a  common  telescope 


108 


ORBITS  OP  DOUBLE  STARS. 


was  insufficient  to  shew  their  separation,  and  even  telescopes 
of  very  superior  power  could  shew  them  no  otherwise  than 
as  a  single  star  somewhat  elongated.  According  to  Sir  J. 
Herschel’s  computations,  the  small  star  must  have  arrived  at 
its  perihelion  on  the  18th  of  August,  1834.  He  also  deter¬ 
mined  the  inclination  of  the  orbit  to  the  visual  ray  to  be  22° 
58',  and  the  angle  of  position  of  the  perihelion  projected  on 
the  heavens,  36°  24'.  The  small  star  of  Eta  Coronae  reached 
its  perihelion  in  1835 ;  and  it  is  calculated  that*  the  revolving 
star  of  Castor  will  reach  the  same  point  during  the  year  1855. 

From  the  observations  that  have  been  made  on  binary  stars, 
it  now  appears  demonstrable  that  the  law  of  gravitation  ex¬ 
tends  its  influence  to  the  starry  regions ;  that  the  same  laws 
of  motion  which  direct  the  planets  in  their  courses,  and  con¬ 
nect  them  with  the  sun  as  their  centre,  likewise  operate  in 
these  binary  systems  in  carrying  one  star  around  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  another.  It  has  often  been  surmised  that  gravi¬ 
tation  is  a  power  which  is  universal  in  its  influence;  and  here 
we  have  a  proof  that  it  extends  not  only  beyond  the  range  of 
the  planetary  system  and  the  orbits  of  the  most  eccentric 
comets,  not  only  to  stars  reckoned  the  nearest  to  our  globe, 
but  to  those  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  even  tenth  magnitudes, 
which  may  be  supposed  many  hundreds  of  billions  of  miles 
further  distant;  thus  rendering  it  highly  probable  that  it  is  a 
fundamental  law  of  matter,  and  extends  its  energies  through¬ 
out  the  amplitudes  of  creation,  combining  in  one  vast  system 
all  the  operations  of  the  Eternal. 

The  orbits  in  which  the  one  star  moves  around  the  other 
are  found  to  be  elliptical ,  which  is  the  same  kind  of  curve  in 
which  the  earth  and  the  other  planets  move  round  the  sun, 
and  in  which  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  Saturn,  and  Uranus  per¬ 
form  their  revolutions  round  their  respective  primaries — 
another  proof  that  the  same  general  law  operates  in  both 
cases.  Some  of  these  orbitual  motions  are  retrograde  and 
others  are  direct ,  or  in  the  same  direction  as  the  motions  of 
the  planets  of  our  system.  In  some  cases  it  happens  that  the 
edge  of  the  orbit  of  the  revolving  star  is  presented  to  the 
earth,  or  in  a  line  nearly  parallel  to  that  of  our  vision,  as  is 
found  in  the  star  rf  Serpentarii ;  in  which  case  the  star  appears 
to  move  in  a  straight  line,  and  to  oscillate  on  each  side  of  the 
larger  star  around  which  it  revolves,  in  a  manner  similar  to 
that  of  the  satellites  of  Jupiter,  which  appear  to  pass  from 
the  one  side  to  the  other  of  the  planet  in  nearly  straight  lines, 
because  the  plane  of  their  orbits  is  nearly  in  a  line  with  our 
eye.  At  the  time  when  Sir  W.  Herschel  first  observed  this 


ORBITS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


109 


binary  system,  the  two  stars  were  distinctly  separate,  but  at 
present  the  small  star  is  so  completely  projected  on  the  other 
that  even  Struve,  with  his  powerful  telescope,  cannot  now 
perceive  the  least  separation  between  the  two  bodies — a  fact 
which  evidently  demonstrates  that  to  our  eye  the  one  is  pass¬ 
ing-  across  the  disc  of  the  other,  and  that  a  number  of  years 
hence  it  will  appear  on  the  other  side  of  the  larger  star.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  two  stars  of  Zeta  Orionis  are  now  sepa¬ 
rated  by  a  small  interval,  although  they  appeared  as  one  star 
in  the  time  of  Sir  W.  Herschel ;  all  which  phenomena  demon¬ 
strate  a  motion  in  a  circular  or  elliptical  orbit,  the  plane  of 
which  lies  oblique  to  our  eye;  and  it  has  been  calculated, 
from  the  apparent  motions  of  these  bodies,  that  the  ellipses 
in  which  they  move  are  in  general  more  elongated  than  the 
orbits  of  the  solar  planets.  On  the  whole,  to  use  the  words 
of  Sir  John  Herschel,  u  we  have  the  same  evidence  of  their 
rotations  about  each  other  that  we  have  of  those  of  Uranus 
and  Saturn  about  the  sun ;  and  the  correspondence  between 
their  calculated  and  observed  places  in  such  very  elongated 
ellipses  must  be  admitted  to  carry  with  it  proof  of  the  pre¬ 
valence  of  the  Newtonian  law  of  gravity  in  their  systems,  of 
the  very  same  nature  and  cogency  as  that  of  the  calculated  and 
observed  places  of  comets  round  the  central  body  of  our  own.” 

Having  stated  the  abovie  general  facts  respecting  binary 
stars,  I  shall  now  present  to  the  reader  a  few  telescopic  views 
of  these  objects. 

Fig.  15  represents  a  telescopic  view  of  Epsilon  Bootis, 
with  a  magnifying  power  of  about  200  times.  This  is 
reckoned  a  very  beautiful  double  star  on  account  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  colours  of  the  stars  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  has 
an  appearance  somewhat  similar  to  a  planet  and  its  satellite, 
both  shining  with  innate  but  differently  coloured  light.  The 
small  star  is  of  a  bluish  colour,  and  is  separated  from  the 
other  by  a  space  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  larger  star,  and 
its  apparent  size  is  one-third  of  the  other.  It  is  sometimes 
called  Mirac ,  and  is  situated  about  ten  degrees  north-east  of 
Jlrcturus.  The  large  star  has  a  reddish  tinge. 

Fig.  16  is  a  Herculis  :  the  small  star  is  of  a  bluish  colour, 
separate  from  the  other  two  diameters  of  the  large  star ;  the 
blue  star  is  one-third  the  size  of  the  other.  It  is  situated  in 
the  head  of  Hercules,  about  thirty  degrees  south-west  from 
the  bright  star  a  Lyrae,  and  six  degrees  north-west  from 
j Has  Jllhague ,  a  star  of  nearly  the  same  magnitude.  It  comes 
to  the  meridian  about  the  middle  of  July,  at  nine  o’clock  in 
the  evening,  at  an  elevation  of  about  fifty-two  degrees.  This 
Vol.  VIII.  10 


110 


VIEWS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS 


star  is  also  distinguished  by  the  name  Ras  Algethi ,  and  may 
be  seen  marked  in  Plate  II.,  which  contains  a  map  of  stars 
which  are  seen  near  the  meridian  about  the  beginning  of  Sep¬ 
tember. 

Fig.  15—31. 


Fig.  17  is  a  view  of  y  Andromedae  :  the  small  star  is  of  a 
fine  greenish-blue  colour,  separate  from  the  large  star  about 
nine  seconds,  or  four  diameters  of  that  star;  the  larger  star 
is  of  a  reddish  white.  It  is  situated  in  the  left  foot  of  Andro¬ 
meda,  and  is  distinguished  by  the  name  Almaack.  It  is  a  stai 


VIEWS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


Ill 


of  the  second  magnitude,  about  forty-two  degrees  of  north 
declination,  and  passes  the  meridian,  in  the  beginning  of  De¬ 
cember,  about  half-past  ten  in  the  evening,  about  ten  degrees 
south  from  the  zenith.  It  is  about  twelve  degrees  nearly  due 
west  from  the  variable  star  Algol. 

Fig.  18  is  Zetci  Cygni :  the  smaller  star  is  blue,  and  they 
are  separated  about  ten  diameters.  This  star  is  situated  in  the 
eastern  wing  of  the  Swan — right  ascension,  21h  4',  north  de¬ 
clination,  twenty-eight  degrees,  and  is  about  twenty  degree** 
south-east  of  Denib,  the  principal  star  of  this  constellation. 

Fig.  19  represents  Zeta  Aquarii.  The  two  stars  are  nearly 
equal  in  apparent  magnitude,  and  one  diameter  and  a  half 
separate  from  each  other ;  both  stars  are  of  a  whitish  colour. 
It  is  in  the  middle  of  other  three  stars,  which  together  form  a 
figure  resembling  the  letter  Y.  Its  right  ascension  is  22h  20;, 
and  its  south  declination  about  two  degrees.  It  is  a  star  of 
about  the  third  magnitude,  and  comes  to  the  meridian  at  nine 
o’clock  in  the  evening  about  the  middle  of  October. 

Fig.  20  represents  the  Pole-star.  The  accompanying  star 
is  a  very  faint  point,  and  requires  an  accurate  telescope  with 
considerable  power  to  distinguish  it.  The  large  star  is  white, 
and  the  small  star  somewhat  of  a  ruddy  appearance,  and  is 
distant  from  the  larger  seventeen  seconds,  or  about  three  or 
four  of  its  diameters. 

Fig.  21  is  the  double  star  Castor.  The  smaller  star  is 
nearly  half  the  size  of  the  larger,  and  they  are  distant  about 
five  seconds,  or  two  diameters  of  the  principal  star.  They 
are  both  of  a  whitish  colour.  Their  situation  may  be  found 
on  Plate  I.  Castor  and  Pollux  lie  to  the  north-west  of  Orion, 
at  a  considerable  distance  from  it.  They  are  very  conspicu¬ 
ous,  are  within  five  degrees  of  each  other,  and  rise  to  a  very 
high  elevation  when  passing  the  meridian,  and  may  be  seen 
throughout  the  whole  winter  and  spring  months.  Castor  is 
the  more  elevated  of  the  two. 

Fig.  22  represents  Rig  el,  a  splendid  star  in  the  left  foot  of 
Orion.  The  small  star  is  a  mere  point,  and  very  difficult  to 
be  distinguished,  and  is  three  or  four  diameters  of  the  large 
star  from  it.  The  large  star  is  white,  the  small  one  of  a  red¬ 
dish  hue. 

Fig.  23  shews  the  double  star  Castor,  with  a  magnifying 
power  of  300.  It  likewise  shews  the  angular  position  of  the 
small  star  at  the  present  time  in  respect  to  Pollux ,  (fig.  24,) 
by  which  it  appears  that  it  is  nearly  at  a  right  angle  to  a  line 
joining  Castor  and  Pollux,  whereas  in  the  time  of  Dr.  Bradley 
it  was  parallel  with  a  line  joining  these  two  stars. 


112  TELESCOPIC  VIEWS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 

Fig.  25,  26,  27,  and  28,  exhibit  views  of  the  double  star 
Epsilon  Bootis,  with  four  magnifying  powers.  Fig.  25  is  its 
appearance  with  a  power  of  227 ;  fig.  26,  with  a  power  of 
460 ;  fig.  27,  with  a  power  of  900 ;  and  fig.  28,  with  a  power 
of  1100. 

Fig.  29,  30,  and  31,  represent  telescopic  views  of  the  triple 
star  in  the  left  fore-foot  of  the  constellation  Monoceros ,  or  the 
Unicorn,  which  forms  a  very  beautiful  object  in  this  class  of 
stars.  This  star  appeared  at  first  double,  but  with  some  at¬ 
tention,  one  of  the  two  is  discovered  to  be  also  double ;  the 
first  of  them  is  the  largest.  The  colour  of  all  these  stars  is 
white.  With  a  small  power  they  appear  as  in  fig.  29 ;  with  a 
power  of  220,  as  in  fig.  30 ;  and  with  a  power  of  450,  as  in 
fig.  31.  There  is  a  beautiful  object  of  this  description,  but 
somewhat  different  in  the  configuration  of  the  three  stars  of 
which  it  is  composed,  to  be  seen  in  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear ; 
it  is  the  star  Zeta  Ursae,  called  also  Mizar ,  and  is  the  middle 
star  in  the  tail. 

Such  are  a  few  specimens  of  the  telescopic  appearances  of 
this  class  of  celestial  objects.  Some  of  these  objects,  in  order 
to  be  distinctly  seen,  require  telescopes  of  considerable  mag¬ 
nifying  power.  All  the  objects,  however,  referred  to  above 
may  be  seen  with  a  good  three  feet  and  a  half  achromatic  tele¬ 
scope,  whose  object  glass  is  two  inches  and  three  quarters 
aperture.  The  double  star  Castor  may  be  seen  with  powers 
of  80,  140,  and  180.  I  have  frequently  distinguished  the 
separation  of  the  two  stars  with  a  terrestrial  power  of  only 
45 ;  but  the  higher  powers  of  course  are  much  preferable.  In 
order  to  perceive  the  very  small  star  or  point  of  light  adjacent 
to  the  pole-star,  a  power  of  140  at  least  is  requisite  with  such 
a  telescope ;  but  it  is  more  distinctly  seen  with  a  power  of 
190  or  200.  It  is  considered  as  a  fair  test  of  the  goodness 
of  a  telescope  of  this  description  when  this  minute  object  is 
perceptible  with  such  powers.  The  small  star  connected  with 
Epsilon  Bootis  is  likewise  an  object  which  requires  a  con¬ 
siderable  degree  of  magnifying  power  and  distinctness  to  per¬ 
ceive  the  separation  of  the  two  stars ;  and  it  is  more  difficult 
to  perceive  the  small  star  adjacent  to  Rigel  than  any  of  these 
objects. 


In  the  phenomena  I  have  now  described,  we  have  a  new 
and  interesting  scene  presented  before  us,  which  leads  the 
mind  into  a  train  of  thought  very  different  from  what  could 


REFLECTIONS  ON  DOUBLE  STARS. 


113 


have  been  conceived  by  astronomers  of  a  former  age  To 
some  minds,  not  accustomed  to  deep  reflection,  it  may  ap¬ 
pear  a  very  trivial  fact  to  behold  a  small  and  scarcely  distin¬ 
guishable  point  of  light  immediately  adjacent  to  a  larger  star, 
and  to  be  informed  that  this  lucid  point  revolves  around  its 
larger  attendant ;  but  this  phenomenon,  minute  and  trivial  as 
it  may  at  first  sight  appear,  proclaims  the  astonishing  fact,  that 

SUNS  REVOLVE  AROUND  SUNS,  AND  SYSTEMS  AROUND  SYSTEMS. 

This  is  a  comparatively  new  idea,  derived  from  our  late  side¬ 
real  investigations,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  sublime  concep¬ 
tions  which  the  modern  discoveries  of  astronomy  have  im¬ 
parted.  It  undoubtedly  conveys  a  very  sublime  idea,  to  con¬ 
template  such  a  globe  as  the  planet  Jupiter — a  body  thirteen 
hundred  times  larger  than  the  earth — revolving  around  the 
sun,  at  the  rate  of  twenty-nine  thousand  miles  every  hour ; 
and  the  planet  Saturn,  with  its  rings  and  moons  revolving 
in  a  similar  manner  round  this  central  orb  in  an  orbit  five 
thousand,  six  hundred  and  ninety  millions  of  miles  in  circum¬ 
ference.  But  how  much  more  august  and  overpowering  the 
conception  of  a  sun  revolving  around  another  sun — of  a  sun 
encircled  with  a  retinue  of  huge  planetary  bodies,  all  in  rapid 
motion,  revolving  round  a  distant  sun,  over  a  circumference  a 
hundred  times  larger  than  what  has  been  now  stated,  and  with 
a  velocity  perhaps  a  hundred  times  greater  than  that  of  either 
Jupiter  or  Saturn,  and  carrying  all  its  planets,  satellites,  comets, 
or  other  globes  along  with  it  in  its  swift  career !  Such  a  sun, 
too,  may  as  far  exceed  these  planets  in  size  as  our  sun  tran¬ 
scends  in  magnitude  either  this  earth  or  the  planet  Venus,  the 
bulk  of  any  one  of  which  scarcely  amounts  to  the  thirteen- 
hundred-thousandth  part  of  the  solar  orb  which  enlightens 
our  day.  The  further  we  advance  in  our  explorations  of  the 
distant  regions  of  space,  and  the  more  minute  and  specific 
our  investigations  are,  the  more  august  and  astonishing  are 
the  scenes  which  open  to  our  view,  and  the  more  elevated  do 
our  conceptions  become  of  the  grandeur  of  that  Almighty 
Being  who  “  marshalled  all  the  starry  hosts,”  and  of  the  mul¬ 
tiplicity  and  variety  of  arrangements  he  has  introduced  into 
his  vast  creation.  And  this  consideration  ought  to  serve  as 
an  argument  to  every  rational  being,  both  in  a  scientific  and  a 
religious  point  of  view,  to  stimulate  him  to  a  study  of  the 
operations  of  the  Most  High,  who  is  u  wonderful  in  counsel 
and  excellent  in  working,”  and  whose  works  in  every  part 
of  his  dominions  adumbrate  the  glory  of  his  perfections,  and 
proclaim  the  depths  of  his  wisdom  and  the  greatness  of  his 
power. 


10* 


114 


DISTANCES  OP  BINARY  SYSTEMS. 


In  order  to  form  a  comprehensive  conception  and  a  proper 
estimate  of  such  binary  systems,  we  have  to  consider,  in  the 
first  place,  the  distances  of  the  stars  or  suns  from  each  other. 
These  distances,  in  the  meantime,  cannot  be  accurately  ascer¬ 
tained  till  something  more  definite  be  determined  respecting 
the  parallaxes  of  these  bodies.  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
distance  between  some  of  these  binary  stars  may  be  as  great 
as  the  distance  between  the  earth  and  any  of  these  stars.  But 
such  a  supposition  is  highly  improbable,  if  we  admit,  what  is 
now  completely  ascertained,  that  these  bodies  are  intimately 
connected  by  the  law  of  gravitation.  Their  distance,  however, 
must  be  very  great,  notwithstanding  their  apparent  nearness  to 
each  other,  as  a  few  seconds  of  interval,  at  the  distance  of  the 
nearest  star,  must  comprise  an  immense  space.  I  shall  suppose 
this  distance  in  the  case  of  some  of  these  bodies  to  be  only 
the  one-hundredth  part  of  what  is  reckoned  the  distance 
(namely,  twenty  billions)  of  the  nearest  star.  On  this  suppo¬ 
sition,  the  distance  of  the  revolving  star  from  its  primary 
would  be  200,000,000,000,  or  two  hundred  thousand  millions 
of  miles.  The  circumference  of  its  orbit  would  therefore  be 
1,256,640,000,000  of  miles.  The  small  star  of  i  Ursae  completes 
its  revolution  in  fifty-eight  years,  and  consequently,  if  at  the 
.distance  now  supposed  from  its  primary,  must  move  at  the 
rate  of  two  millions  four  hundred  and  seventy-one  thousand 
miles  every  hour,  which  is  eighty-five  times  the  velocity  of 
the  planet  Jupiter,  and  more  than  twenty-three  times  the  ve¬ 
locity  of  Mercury  in  its  orbit,  which  is  the  swiftest  moving 
planet  in  our  system.  This  motion  would  be  still  more  swift 
in  the  case  of  some  of  the  other  stars  to  which  we  have 
alluded.  The  small  star  of  6  Eridani ,  as  determined  by  Mr. 
Dunlop,  revolves  around  the  larger  at  the  rate  of  somewhat 
more  than  ten  and  a  half  degrees  per  annum,  and  consequently 
accomplishes  a  revolution  in  little  more  than  thirty  years.  Its 
motion,  then,  at  the  distance  supposed,  would  be  equal  to  four 
millions  seven  hundred  thousand  miles  an  hour,  which  is  162 
times  the  velocity  of  Jupiter,  and  about  forty-four  times  that 
of  Mercury.  Even  the  small  star  of  y  Leonis,  which  takes 
1200  years  to  accomplish  is  revolution,  would,  on  the  same 
supposition,  move  at  the  rate  of  119,000  miles  an  hour,  which 
is  a  greater  velocity  than  that  of  the  swiftest  planets  of  our 
system.  These  are  immense  velocities,  especially  when  we 
consider  the  enormous  size  of  the  bodies  thus  impelled ;  for 
the  least  of  these  suns  may  be  considered  as  ten  millions  of 
times  larger  than  the  planet  Mercury,  yet  moving  with  a  ve¬ 
locity  so  much  superior. 


PLANETS  CONNECTED  WITH  BINARY  SYSTEMS.  115 


What,  then,  would  be  the  velocities  of  such  bodies  were  we 
to  suppose  them  as  far  distant  from  each  other  as  we  are  from 
the  nearest  star !  In  the  case  of  Xi  Ursae,  the  velocity  would 
be  two  hundred  and  forty-seven  millions,  one  hundred  and 
sixty  thousand  miles  every  hour,  and  four  millions,  one  hun¬ 
dred  and  fifty  thousand  every  minute ;  and  in  the  case  of  6 
Eridani ,  the  velocity  would  be  477,800,000  miles  an  hour, 
and  132,735  in  a  second ,  which  is  more  than  sixteen  thousand 
times  the  velocity  of  Jupiter.  That  bodies  may  move  with 
such  velocity  is  perhaps  not  impossible,  but  it  is  highly  im¬ 
probable  that  such  rapid  motions  actually  exist  among  bodies 
of  such  astonishing  magnitudes;  and  therefore  we  must  sup¬ 
pose  that  the  binary  stars  are  within  a  moderate  distance  of 
each  other.  Still,  that  distance  must  be  very  considerable,  and 
it  is  not  unlikely  may  be  as  great  as  I  have  supposed,  and  if 
so,  it  presents  to  our  view  motions  more  rapid  and  sublime 
than  any  which  are  known  to  exist  within  the  limits  of  our 
planetary  system. 

In  the  next  place,  we  must  consider  the  system  of  planets 
connected  with  the  binary  stars.  These  stars  are  evidently 
suns  or  self-luminous  bodies,  otherwise  their  light  would 
never  reach  our  distant  sphere.  But  we  can  never  admit  that 
suns  were  created  merely  to  diffuse  a  useless  splendour  over 
the  waste  spaces  of  infinity,  where  there  are  no  sentient  beings 
with  visual  organs  to  be  cheered  with  their  radiance.  In  this 
case  they  might  be  said  to  be  created  in  vain.  Hence  we 
must  necessarily  conclude  that  these  suns  are  attended  with  a 
retinue  of  planetary  bodies,  which  revolve  around  them  as  the 
centres  of  light  and  attractive  influence,  and  we  can  scarcely 
conceive  a  more  sublime  and  astonishing  object  than  that  of 
magnificent  suns  revolving  around  still  more  magnificent  and 
luminous  centres,  and  conveying  along  with  them  in  their 
swift  career  a  numerous  train  of  mighty  worlds,  all  in  regular 
and  rapid  motion  around  their  respective  orbs.  In  such  sub¬ 
lime  sidereal  arrangements  we  behold  a  combination  of  motions 
and  effects  of  gravitation  which  are  not  to  be  traced  through¬ 
out  any  part  of  the  system  to  which  we  belong.  For  while 
the  planets  which  perform  their  revolutions  around  the  re¬ 
volving  sun,  are  affected  by  the  power  of  attraction  from  that 
body,  with  which  they  are  more  immediately  connected,  they 
must  likewise  be  attracted  by  the  larger  central  sun,  and  their 
motions  sometimes  retarded,  sometimes  accelerated,  and  va¬ 
riously  modified,  by  its  powerful  influence,  which  combined 
influences  must  produce  a  diversity  of  phenomena  and  effects 
unknown  in  the  system  of  our  sun.  For  the  sake  of  some 


116  DIVERSITY  IN  PERIODICAL  REVOLUTIONS. 


readers,  not  accustomed  to  such  views  and  contemplations,  I 
have  given  a  rude  sketch  of  a  binary  system  in  fig.  32,  in 
which  the  central  circles  represent  the  larger  sun  with  its  at¬ 
tendant  planets,  and  the  other  circles  the  revolving  sun  and 
its  planets,  in  four  different  positions. 

Again,  in  contemplating  these  binary  systems,  we  perceive 
a  great  diversity  in  the  periods  of  their  revolutions.  The  pe¬ 
riod  of  revolution  of  the  small  star  of  *  Bootes  is  calculated 
to  be  not  less  than  1600  years.  An  inhabitant  of  that  system 
would  be  considered  by  us  an  old  residenter  were  he  to  sur¬ 
vive  the  period  of  a  year,  or  a  single  revolution.  But  in  such 
systems  it  is  not  likely  that  the  lapse  of  duration  is  marked 
by  so  short  periods  as  in  our  own  sublunary  abode,  nor  is  it 
probable  that  disease  and  death  cut  short  the  existence  of  its 
inhabitants,  as  in  the  world  in  which  we  dwell.  Another  of 
these  suns  takes  1200  years  to  complete  a  revolution ;  another, 
629  years ;  and  another,  452 ;  while  several  others  finish  their 
circuits  in  the  comparatively  short  periods  of  55,  43,  and 
even  30  years.  Whether  these  diversities  in  the  periods  of 
revolution  be  owing  to  the  different  magnitudes  of  the  respect¬ 
ive  bodies,  their  distances  from  each  other,  the  amplitudes  of 
the  orbits  in  which  they  move,  or  the  comparative  velocities 
with  which  they  are  carried  forward  in  their  career,  we  have 
as  yet  been  unable  to  determine ;  and  a  long-continued  series 
of  the  most  delicate  and  minute  investigation  is  still  requisite 
before  such  points  can  be  ascertained  with  any  degree  of  pre¬ 
cision.  But  such  striking  differences  in  their  periodic  revolu¬ 
tions  evidently  indicate  that  the  characteristic  of  variety  is 
impressed  upon  all  the  arrangements  connected  with  those 
distant  systems ;  which  leads  us  to  conclude  that  there  is  no 
system  of  suns  or  worlds  in  the  universe  exactly  resembling 
another,  although  they  may  be  all  subject  to  the  operation  of 
the  same  general  and  fundamental  laws.  From  such  circum¬ 
stances  we  are  likewise  led  to  infer  that  among  bodies  in  the 
more  distant  regions  of  creation  there  may  be  motions  and  ar¬ 
rangements  altogether  different  from  any  thing  we  yet  know, 
which  produce  scenes  of  beauty,  sublimity,  and  grandeur,  far 
surpassing  what  the  mind  of  man  can  yet  conceive. 

In  regard  to  the  number  of  such  binary  systems,  no  precise 
estimate  has  yet  been  made.  We  have,  however,  every  reason 
to  believe  that  their  number  is  very  great.  I  have  already 
stated  that  about  6000  double  stars  have  been  detected  by  M. 
Struve,  the  two  Herschels,  Mr.  Dunlop,  and  Sir  James  South. 
On  the  doctrine  of  chances,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  im¬ 
probable  that  the  greater  part,  or  even  any  considerable  num- 


NUMBER  OF  BINARY  SYSTEMS. 


117 


ber  of  these  bodies,  appear  double  by  their  accidental  prox¬ 
imity,  or  being  so  placed  one  behind  another  as  to  be  nearly 
in  the  same  line  of  vision.  We  may  therefore  conclude  that 
at  least  4000  of  these  stars  are  binary  systems  connected  by 
the  law  of  mutual  gravitation.  Between  forty  and  fifty  of 
these  bodies  have  been  ascertained  beyond  doubt  to  form  re¬ 
volving  systems,  and  time  must  be  allowed  for  further  investi¬ 
gations.  It  is  but  lately  that  the  attention  of  astronomers  has 
been  directed  to  such  observations ;  and  on  account  of  the 
very  minute  distances  of  the  revolving  stars  from  each  other, 
and  the  slight  variation  of  the  angle  of  position  which  can  be 
traced  for  a  series  of  years,  an  age  or  two  is  requisite  in  order 
to  determine  with  precision  the  degree  or  progress  of  their 
revolutionary  movements.  Some  of  their  orbits,  too,  may  be 
so  extensive,  or  their  motions  so  comparatively  slow,  that 
several  thousands  of  years  may  elapse  before  the  periods  of 
some  of  these  bodies  be  completed ;  and  if  so,  we  have  no 
reason  to  conclude  that  they  are  not  binary  systems,  although 
half  a  century  should  elapse  without  any  change  being  per¬ 
ceived  in  their  angular  positions.  In  the  coure  of  fifty  or  sixty 
years  hence,  we  have  reason  to  believe  many  important  dis¬ 
coveries  will  be  made  in  reference  to  the  bodies  in  question, 
and  what  is  at  present  doubtful  or  obscure  will  be  rendered 
definite  and  precise.  In  the  meantime,  we  may  safely  take 
for  granted  that  several  thousands  of  those  revolving  suns  and 
systems  lie  within  the  range  of  our  telescopes,  whose  revolu¬ 
tions  will  ere  long  be  determined.  But  as  our  most  powerful 
instruments  can  carry  us  only  a  very  small  way,  comparatively, 
beyond  the  outward  boundaries  of  those  mighty  heavens  which 
surround  us,  ten  thousands  of  such  systems  may  exist  in  those 
remoter  regions,  which  will  for  ever  remain  inexplorable  by 
mortals. 

There  is  another  interesting  view  which  may  be  taken  of 
these  binary  systems,  and  that  is — the  contrast  of  colours 
which  some  of  the  stars  composing  these  systems  exhibit.  I 
have  already  alluded  to  some  of  these  stars  being  of  different 
colours,  and  any  observer  who  is  possessed  of  a  good  tele¬ 
scope  may  easily  satisfy  himself  on  this  point.  w  Many  of  the 
double  stars,”  says  Sir  J.  Herschel,  exhibit  the  beautiful  and 
curious  phenomena  of  contrasted  or  complementary  colours. 
In  such  instances,  the  larger  star  is  usually  of  a  ruddy  or 
orange  hue,  while  the  smaller  one  appears  blue  or  green ; 
probably  in  virtue  of  that  general  law  of  optics  which  provides 
that  when  the  retina  is  under  the  influence  of  excitement  by 
any  bright-coloured  light,  feebler  lights,  when  seen  alone 


118  SUNS  OF  DIFFERENT  COLOURS. 

would  produce  no  sensation  but  of  whiteness,  shall  for  the 
time  appear  coloured  with  the  tint  complementary  to  that  of 
the  brighter.  Thus  a  yellow  colour  predominating  in  the 
light  of  the  brighter  star,  that  of  the  less  bright  one  in  the 
same  field  of  view  will  appear  blue;  while  if  the  tint  of  the 
brighter  star  verge  to  crimson,  that  of  the  other  will  exhibit  a 
tendency  to  green,  or  even  appear  as  a  vivid  green  under  fa¬ 
vourable  circumstances.  The  former  contrast  is  beautifully 
exhibited  by  Iota  Cancri ,  the  latter  by  Gamma  Andromedae, 
both  fine  double  stars.  If,  however  the  coloured  star  be  much 
the  less  bright  of  the  two,  it  will  not  materially  affect  the 
other.  Thus,  for  instance,  Eta  Cassiopeiae  exhibits  the  beauti¬ 
ful  combination  of  a  large  white  star  and  a  small  one  of  a  rich 
ruddy  purple.  It  is  by  no  means,  however,  intended  to  say 
that  in  all  such  cases  one  of  the  colours  is  a  mere  effect  of 
contrast;  and  it  may  be  easier  suggested  in  words  than  con¬ 
ceived  in  imagination,  what  variety  of  illumination  two  suns ,  a 
red  and  a  green,  or  a  yellow  and  a  blue  one,  must  afford  a 
planet  circulating  about  either ;  and  what  charming  contrasts 
and  ‘grateful  vicissitudes’ — a  red  and  a  green  day,  for  instance, 
alternating  with  a  white  one  and  with  darkness — might  arise 
from  the  presence  or  absence  of  one  or  other,  or  both,  above 
the  horizon.  Insulated  stars  of  a  red  colour,  almost  as  deep 
as  that  of  blood,  occur  in  many  parts  of  the  heavens,  but  no 
green  or  blue  star  (of  any  decided  hue)  has,  we  believe,  ever 
been  noticed  unassociated  with  a  companion  brighter  than 
itself.” 

The  fact  of  coloured  suns ,  of  suns  belonging  to  the  same 
system  diflusing  light  of  opposite  or  contrasted  colours,  pre¬ 
sents  a  novel  and  interesting  idea,  and  a  splendid  scene,  in 
which  a  lively  imagination  may  luxuriate  while  depicting  the 
diversity  of  aspects  under  which  objects  will  appear  in  those 
worlds  which  are  alternately  illuminated  by  such  a  variety  of 
irradiation.  It  is  somewhat  difficult,  however,  to  form  a  dis¬ 
tinct  conception  of  the  particular  beauties,  sublimities,  and 
contrasts,  which  will  be  produced  by  such  admirable  arrange¬ 
ments.  We  are  unacquainted  with  the  nature  and  qualities  of 
the  substances  which  are  thus  illuminated,  and  therefore  can¬ 
not  determine  the  peculiar  hues  or  splendour  which  will  re¬ 
sult  from  the  reflection  of  such  irradiations ;  but  we  may 
easily  conceive  there  will  be  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
variety  and  splendour  of  such  illuminations,  and  in  the  con¬ 
trasts  of  colours  which  will  be  exhibited  when  the  revolving 
planets  are  in  different  parts  of  their  orbits.  When  in  such 
positions  as  J1 ,  J3,  C,  D,  (fig  32,)  they  will  be  more  directly 


CONTRASTED  COLOURS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS.  119 

under  the  influence  of  both  suns  th*m  when  at  E  and  F,  and 
of  course  the  effect  of  the  contrasted  coloured  rays  will  be 
most  remarkable.  One  hemisphere  of  a  planet  may  be  illu¬ 
minated  with  a  yellow  sun,  while  the  other  is  at  the  same 
time  enlightened  by  a  green,  and  both  suns  may  occasionally 
shine  in  the  same  hemisphere,  producing  such  a  blending  of 
hues,  and  a  contrast  of  colouring  over  the  whole  landscape, 
as  to  render  the  aspect  of  the  scene  completely  different  at 
one  time  from  what  it  is  at  another.  In  different  parts  of  the 
planets’  courses  around  their  primary  suns  these  effects  will  be 
variously  modified,  so  as  to  produce  an  almost  perpetual  va¬ 
riety  in  the  scenery  of  such  worlds.  A  sun  of  a  brilliant 
white  colour  may  perhaps  be  seen  rising,  while  a  sun  of  a 
ruby  hue  is  descending  below  the  horizon,  and  when  both 
suns  are  absent,  the  starry  firmament  will  appear  in  all  its 

Fig.  32. 


120  CONTRASTED  COLOURS  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


splendour,  and  every  object  around  present  a  contrast  to  its 
previous  appearance. 

The  science  of  optics,  and  particularly  the  experiments 
which  have  been  made  on  polarized  light ,  show  us  what  a 
variety  of  combinations  of  vivid  and  beautiful  colours  may  be 
produced  by  certain  modifications  of  light,  which  may  easily 
lead  us  to  conceive  of  the  sublime  and  diversified  brilliancy  of 
colouring  which  must  be  the  result  of  the  irradiation  of  suns 
of  different  hues.  The  light  of  the  stars  in  general  is  greatly 
diversified,  although  on  a  cursory  view  of  the  firmament  they 
appear  nearly  of  the  same  aspect.  The  rays  of  Sirius ,  for  ex¬ 
ample,  are  not  only  strikingly  different  from  those  of  Jlldeba - 
nrn,  but  from  those  of  many  other  stars  which  seem  to  bear  a 
nearer  resemblance.  In  tropical  climates,  where  the  sky  is 
clearer  than  with  us,  and  almost  of  a  dark  ebony  colour,  the 
different  hues  of  the  stars  are  more  striking  and  perceptible  to 
the  naked  eye  than  when  seen  through  our  comparatively 
hazy  atmosphere.  In  this  respect  then,  as  well  as  in  several 
others,  the  declaration  of  the  inspired  writer  is  literally  true, 
that  u  one  star  differeth  from  another  star  in  glory.”  Milton, 
in  the  eighth  boolCof  his  u  Paradise  Lost,”  utters  a  sentiment 
on  this  subject  which  seems  to  be  almost  prophetic,  when  he 
represents  Raphael  in  his  address  to  Adam  as  saying — 

“  Other  suns,  perhaps, 

With  their  attendant  moons  thou  wilt  descry, 

Communicating  male  and  female  light , 

Which  two  great  sexes  animate  the  world, 

Stored  in  each  orb,  perhaps,  with  some  that  live.” 

In  these  phenomena  we  have  another  proof  of  the  infinite 
variety  which  the  Creator  has  introduced  into  the  systems  of 
the  universe — a  variety  in  regard  to  colour  as  well  as  to  mag¬ 
nitude,  motion  and  other  arrangements, — which  leads  us  to 
conclude  that  although  we  were  permitted  to  make  the  tour 
of  universal  nature,  we  should  meet  with  no  worlds,  or  sys¬ 
tems  of  worlds,  in  which  the  scenery  and  arrangements  are 
exactly  the  same,  but  that  each  would  display  its  own  pecu¬ 
liar  harmonies,  beauties,  and  sublimities,  and  the  enraptured 
spectator,  at  every  stage  of  his  excursion,  would  behold  a  new 
manifestation  of  u  the  manifold  wisdom  of  God.” 

It  would  be  an  important  and  interesting  acquisition  in 
astronomy  could  we  determine  exactly,  or  even  to  a  near 
approximation,  the  distances  of  any  of  these  binary  systems, 
and  the  actual  dimensions  of  the  orbits  of  the  revolving  stars. 
It  appears  from  what  has  been  formerly  stated,  (pp.  61 — 63?) 


DISTANCES  OF  DOUBLE  STARS. 


121 


that  the  parallax,  and  consequently  the  distance,  of  61  Cygni 
has  been  determined  by  Professor  Bessel.  Now  this  is  a 
double  star,  or  binary  system,  and  one  of  the  stars  is  found 
to  have  an  annual  angular  motion  of  about  two-thirds  of  a 
degree  ;  from  which  it  is  inferred  that  the  period  of  its  re¬ 
volution  may  be  about  540  years,  and  that  the  semi-major 
axis  of  its  orbit  is  seen  under  an  angle  of  more  than  15". 
W ere  these  and  other  correlative  points  accurately  settled,  we 
might  soon  determine  to  a  near  approximation  the  extent  of 
its  orbit,  the  space  through  which  it  moves  in  the  course  of  a 
revolution,  and  consequently  its  rate  of  velocity ;  but  as  the 
motion  of  revolution  of  this  star  is  so  extremely  slow,  a  con¬ 
siderable  period  of  years  may  elapse  till  all  the  elements  of 
its  orbit  be  accurately  ascertained. 

A  few  years  ago,  a  method  was  pointed  out  by  M.  Savory, 
a  French  astronomer,  by  which  the  dimensions  of  the  orbit 
of  a  revolving  star  might  be  determined.  This  method 
depends  upon  the  fact  that  light  moves  with  a  certain  known 
rate  of  velocity.  Suppose  that  one  of  the  double  stars 
moves  round  another  in  an  orbit  which  is  nearly  parallel 
to  our  line  of  vision,  it  is  evident  that  the  one  half  of 
its  orbit  will  be  nearer  to  us  than  the  other,  and  that  at 
the  most  distant  point  of  its  course  the  star  will  be  re¬ 
moved  from  us  to  a  distance  equal,  or  nearly  equal,  to  the 
whole  diameter  of  its  orbit  further  than  when  at  the  point 
which  is  nearest  the  earth.  As  the  light  which  proceeds  from 
the  star  takes  a  certain  time  in  moving  across  the  interval 
which  separates  us  from  that  body  before  it  reach  our  eye, 
we  must  necessarily  see  the  star  in  a  point  of  its  orbit  dif¬ 
ferent  from  that  in  which  it  is  actually  placed.  Let  S  (fig. 
33)  represent  the  central  star,  E  the  earth,  and  H  F  K  G  the 
orbit  of  the  revolving  star.  When  the  star  is  at  //,  it  is 
nearest  the  earth ;  and  when  at  jfif,  it  is  farther  distant  by  the 
whole  diameter  of  its  orbit.  Now,  when  the  star  proceeds 
from  FT,  the  nearest  point  of  its  orbit,  its  light  will  take  a 
longer  period  to  reach  the  earth  in  proportion  as  it  moves  on 
in  its  course  from  H  to  G  and  from  G  to  K ,  and  conse¬ 
quently  will  appear  to  take  a  longer  time  than  in  reality  it 
does  in  moving  along  that  portion  of  its  orbit ;  but  in  return¬ 
ing  through  the  other  half  of  its  orbit,  R  F  H,  it  will  appear 
to  pass  through  it  in  a  less  space  of  time  than  it  actually 
does,  since  the  light  which  proceeds  from  it  takes  less  and 
less  time  to  reach  our  eye  as  it  approaches  in  its  course 
towards  F  and  H.  If,  therefore,  we  could  accurately  deter¬ 
mine  the  difference  of  time  between  these  two  half  revoiu- 
Vol.  VIII.  11 


122 


DIMENSIONS  OE  BINARY  SYSTEMS. 


tions  of  the  star,  we  should  have  data  sufficient  for  determin¬ 
ing,  to  a  near  approximation,  the  dimensions  of  the  orbit  in 
miles,  or  other  known  measures ;  and  having  found  these 
dimensions,  the  distance  of  the  star  from  the  earth  could  like¬ 
wise  be  found  by  an  easy  trigonometrical  calculation. 


Fig.  33. 
K 


E 


This  method  of  finding  the  dimensions  of  binary  systems 
is  entitled  to  the  praise  of  ingenuity ;  but  it  will  be  difficult, 
in  many  instances,  to  put  it  in  practice.  Its  accuracy  will 
depend  upon  our  knowing  the  jDosition  of  the  orbit  with 
regard  to  our  eye,  and  our  ascertaining  exactly  when  the  star 


TREBLE  STARS. 


123 


is  in  H  or  at  K ,  or  the  two  opposite  points  of  its  orbit.  Be¬ 
sides,  a  very  long  time  must  intervene  before  observations  of 
this  kind  can  be  completed,  since  most  of  the  periods  that 
have  been  determined  in  regard  to  double  stars  extend  to 
several  hundreds  of  years,  and  the  shortest  period  yet  known 
of  any  of  these  revolving  bodies  is  above  thirty  years.  It  is 
generally  taken  for  granted,  by  those  who  have  adverted  to 
this  subject,  that  the  distance  between  the  revolving  and  the 
central  star  is  as  great,  or  nearly  as  great,  as  that  which  inter¬ 
venes  between  us  and  the  nearest  star;  and  hence,  in  their 
illustrations  of  this  point,  they  have  supposed  light  to  take 
at  least  one  year  in  crossing  the  orbit  of  a  revolving  star, 
which  of  course  would  make  the  diameter  of  such  an  orbit 
above  six  billions  of  miles.  But  there  appears  no  reason  for 
forming  such  extravagant  suppositions,  as  in  such  a  case  the 
binary  stars  could  scarcely  be  supposed  to  have  any  intimate 
connexion.  We  might  almost  as  soon  suppose  that  the  star 
Sirius  might  revolve  around  our  sun,  or  the  sun  around  Sirius. 
It  is  not  likely  that  the  double  stars  in  general  are  much 
further  from  each  other  than  the  distance  I  formerly  sup¬ 
posed, — namely,  200,000,000,000,  and  consequently  the  di¬ 
ameter  of  their  orbits  about  400,000,000,000  of  miles. — 
Through  this  space  light  would  pass  in  the  course  of  24 
days  and  2-J  hours ;  and  therefore  it  would  require  very 
accurate  determinations  indeed  of  the  points  H  and  K7  or  the 
nearest  and  remotest  points  of  the  orbits,  before  any  precise 
conclusions  could  be  deduced,  if  the  stars  be  not  farther  dis¬ 
tant  than  I  have  supposed,  and  it  is  perhaps  as  probable  that 
they  are  considerably  within  that  distance.  It  is  not  im¬ 
probable,  however,  that  the  dimensions  of  the  orbits  of  some 
of  those  stars  whose  periods  are  shortest  may  in  this  way 
be  determined ;  but  a  considerable  period  must  elapse  before 
the  requisite  observations  can  be  made. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON  TREBLE,  QUADRUPLE,  AND  MULTIPLE  STARS. 

Besides  the  combinations  of  double  stars  described  in  the 
preceding  chapter,  treble,  quadruple  and  multiple  stars  have 
been  discovered,  many  of  which  appear  to  be  intimately  con¬ 
nected,  and  te>  be  formed  into  regular  systems,  whose  motions 


124 


TREBLE  AND  QUADRUPLE  STARS. 


and  phenomena  must  of  course  be  more  diversified  and  com¬ 
plicated  than  those  of  binary  systems.  Without  entering  into 
particular  discussions  on  this  subject,  I  shall  present  to  the 
reader  only  two  or  three  general  remarks,  with  a  short  list  of 
some  of  the  treble  and  multiple  stars  to  which  I  allude. 

The  more  profound  and  minute  our  investigations  are  into 
the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  the  more  do  we  discover  of  the 
endlessly  diversified  modes  by  which  the  system  of  universal 
nature  is  arranged  and  conducted,  and  the  more  clearly  do  we 
perceive  a  display  of  the  infinite  wisdom  and  intelligence  of 
its  almighty  Author.  Who  could  have  previously  conceived 
of  one  sun  and  svstem  revolving  round  another,  had  not  re- 
cent  observations  demonstrated  the  astonishing  fact  ?  As  one 
discovery  naturally  leads  to  another,  so  the  facts  which  have 
already  been  ascertained  may  lead  to  discoveries  in  future 
generations  still  more  wonderful  and  sublime  than  those 
which  have  hitherto  been  brought  to  light.  The  discovery 
of  binary  systems  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  almost  all  the 
close  groups,  or  clustering  stars,  visible  to  the  naked  eye  or 
descried  by  telescopes,  are  multiple  systems,  or  suns  and 
planetary  worlds  linked  together  by  a  universal  law  or  prin¬ 
ciple,  acting  in  different  modes,  and  producing  an  immense 
variety  of  physical  phenomena  and  effects.  Guided  by  prin¬ 
ciples  and  facts  recently  brought  to  light,  astronomers  have 
only  to  direct  their  attention  more  particularly  to  such  objects, 
to  watch  with  care  the  slightest  movements  in  the  sidereal 
heavens,  and  take  their  measurements  of  distances  and  angular 
positions  with  the  utmost  precision ;  and  then  we  may  expect 
that  succeeding  generations  will  have  unfolded  to  their  view  a 
more  sublime  and  comprehensive  prospect  of  the  arrangements 
of  the  universe. 

In  certain  cases,  it  has  already  been  ascertained  that  treble 
stars  form  one  connected  system.  The  star  marked  £  Cancri 
is  a  treble  star  of  this  description.  Two  of  the  stars  are 
considerably  unequal ;  the  largest  of  these  is  larger  than  the 
single  star,  and  the  least  of  the  two  is  less  than  the  single 
star.  The  first  and  second  largest,  as  described  by  Sir  W 
Herschel,  are  pretty  unequal,  and  the  second  and  third  pretty 
unequal.  The  two  nearest  are  pale  red.  They  require  very 
favourable  circumstances  to  be  distinctly  seen  ;  they  are  just 
separated  by  a  power  of  227,  and  with  460  their  distance  is 
4  the  diameter  of  the  smaller  one.  This  is  considered  a  case 
in  which  three  suns  revolve  around  a  common  centre.  Ob¬ 
servation  has  not  yet  affqrded  a  sufficient  data  for  determining 
the  particular  motions  or  arrangements  of  such  complex  sys- 


ORBITS  OF  TREBLE  STARS. 


125 


terns ;  blit  we  may  conceive  them  as  arranged  in  a  manner 
somewhat  similar  to  what  we  have  delineated  in  fig.  34,  where 
the  point  C  may  represent  the  common  centre  of  gravity 
around  which  the  three  bodies  revolve.  The  circles  A  I) 
E,  F  G,  represent  the  orbits  of  the  revolving  bodies,  which 


Fig.  34. 


may  be  conceived  as  lying  in  different  planes  oblique  to  each 
other,  to  prevent  any  occasional  collision  or  too  near  an  ap¬ 
proach. 

A  quadruple  system  may  be  represented  by  fig.  35,  where 
C  is  the  centre  of  gravity  round  which  the  four  bodies  re¬ 
volve,  and  the  circles  a  a  a  a,  b  b  b  b,  8lc.,  the  respective 
orbits  in  which  they  move.  The  star  e  Lyrse  is  probably  a 
system  of  this  kind.  It  is  a  star  of  the  fifth  magnitude,  situ¬ 
ated  about  two  degrees  north-east  from  the  bright  star  Vega , 
or  a  Lyrse.  The  stars  of  which  it  is  composed  are  easily  dis¬ 
tinguishable  by  a  telescope  of  moderate  power,  and  it  is 
easily  found  from  its  vicinity  to  the  very  bright  star  adjacent 
to  it.  The  small  stars  of  which  it  is  composed  are  situated 

IP 


126 


ORBITS  OF  TREBLE  STARS. 


nearly  as  represented  in  fig.  36.  We  might  conceive  of  such 
a  system  of  bodies  revolving  in  a  still  more  complex  man¬ 
ner, — the  star  V  revolving  round  S,  the  star  U  revolving 


Fig.  35. 
b 


round  T,  the  system  of  V  and  S  revolving  round  a  point  a, 
and  the  system  of  77  and  T  round  the  same  point  or  centre 

Fig.  36. 


a 


U 


in  a  separate  but  more  expansive  orbit.  But  it  is  difficult  to 
form  diagrams  of  such  complex  systems. 

There  are  many  different  combinations  by  which  we  may 


ORBITS  OF  MULTIPLE  STARS. 


127 


conceive  treble,  quadruple,  and  multiple  stars  to  revolve  round 
their  common  centre  of  gravity,  which  it  would  be  too  tedi¬ 
ous  to  describe,  particularly  as  such  motions  have  not  yet  been 
accurately  ascertained.  Sir  W.  Herschel  describes  one  of  these 
possible  combinations  which  is  not  a  little  singular.  Suppose 
two  equal  stars,  a  and  (fig.  37,)  moving  in  a  circular  orbit 


Fig.  37. 

£ 


round  their  common  centre  of  gravity  which  will  be  the  cen¬ 
tre  of  the  circle.  From  the  centre  of  the  circle,  draw  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  their  orbit,  extending  to  equal 
distances  above  and  below  this  centre.  Let  us  now  suppose  a 
third  star,  c,  to  fall  from  one  extremity  of  this  perpendicular, 
from  a  state  of  rest ;  it  will  obviously  descend  with  a  gra¬ 
dually  accelerated  motion  till  it  reaches  the  centre  of  gravity , 
and  passing  onwards  with  a  motion  gradually  retarded,  it  will 
move  to  the  other  end  of  the  perpendicular,  where  it  will  ar¬ 
rive  at  a  state  of  rest,  and  again  return  and  continue  to  oscillate 
between  these  two  points.  The  two  stars  which  move  in  a 
circular  orbit  may  describe  equal  ellipses  of  any  degree  of  ec¬ 
centricity.  In  this  case,  however,  the  perturbations  will  affect 
not  only  the  planes  of  their  orbits,  but  also  their  figures ;  and 


128 


PROBLEM  OP  THREE  BODIES. 


the  length  of  the  oscillations  of  the  third  will  be  sometimes 
increased  and  diminished. 

A  sun  oscillating  in  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  orbit  of 
other  two  suns,  and  continuing  its  motion  forages  in  that  line, 
is  certainly  a  very  strange  idea  *,  and  yet,  from  the  variety  we 
perceive  in  the  arrangements  of  the  universe,  it  is  not  at  all 
improbable  that  such  combinations  may  exist  among  treble 
stars.  The  idea  here  intended  to  be  conveyed  may  be  illus¬ 
trated  by  suspending  a  ring,  and  placing  a  wire  perpendicular 
4o  it  in  its  centre.  The  ring  will  represent  the  plane  of  the 
orbit  in  which  the  two  equal  stars  move,  and  the  perpendicu¬ 
lar  wire  the  line  or  course  of  the  third  star  moving  backward 
and  forward  with  different  degrees  of  accelerated  and  retarded 
motion.  The  motions  connected  with  quintuple  and  multiple 
stars  must  be  still  more  complex  than  those  to  which  we  have 
adverted ;  but  it  is  difficult  in  the  mean  time  to  form  any  dis¬ 
tinct  ideas  on  the  subject,  till  actual  observation  in  the  course 
of  succeeding  ages  shall  pave  the  way  for  deducing  definite 
conclusions.  The  discoveries  already  made  open  to  view  new 
scenes  of  celestial  mechanism,  and  new  views  of  the  diversi¬ 
fied  and  admirable  contrivances  of  Divine  Wisdom,  so  that,  in 
reference  to  such  objects,  we  may  apply  to  the  almighty 
architect  the  language  of  the  sacred  writer — “  How  unsearch¬ 
able  are  thine  operations  and  thy  ways  past  finding  out !” 
When  we  consider  that  around  each  of  these  moving  suns  a 
retinue  of  planets  must  be  supposed  to  wheel  their  courses, 
at  different  distances  and  in  different  periods  of  time,  we  can¬ 
not  but  feel  astonished  at  the  complexity  of  motions,  pertur¬ 
bations,  and  other  effects  which  must  necessarily  follow  ;  yet 
we  are  bound  to  believe  that  every  thing  moves  omvard,  not 
only  without  confusion,  but  in  the  most  perfect  order  and 
harmony ;  for  He  who  at  first  arranged  the  plan  of  the  mate¬ 
rial  world,  and  impressed  upon  matter  the  laws  which  now 
operate,  is  possessed  of  boundless  intelligence,  and  foresees  at 
one  glance  all  the  effects  which  those  laws  can  possibly  pro¬ 
duce  ;  and,  so  far  as  our  observation  extends,  every  object 
and  movement  in  nature  appears  to  be  adjusted  with  the  most 
pefect  regularity. 

The  solution  of  the  “  problem  of  three  bodies”  was  con¬ 
sidered  as  a  work  of  so  great  nicety  and  difficulty  that  none 
but  such  profound  mathematicians  as  Clairaut,  D’Alembert, 
and  Euler,  could  undertake  such  a  delicate  and  laborious  in¬ 
vestigation.  This  problem  was,  u  to  determine  the  curves  de¬ 
scribed  by  three  bodies  projected  from  three  points  given  in 
position,  and  with  velocities  given  in  quantity  and  direction — 


REFLECTIONS  ON  MULTIPLE  SYSTEMS. 


129 


the  force  with  which  they  gravitate  being  directly  as  then 
quantities  of  matter,  and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  dis¬ 
tance.”  If  the  resolution  of  such  a.  problem  required  so  great 
acuteness  of  intellect,  and  so  eminent  skill  in  the  science  of 
analysis,  what  perspicacity  of  intellect,  and  what  profound 
knowledge  of  every  thing  connected  with  physical  and  mathe¬ 
matical  investigations  must  be  requisite  to  determine  the 
courses  described  and  the  perturbations  produced  by  the  com¬ 
plex  motions  of  five,  six,  or  seven  suns  all  connected  together, 
yet  moving  in  different  curves  and  in  different  directions, 
along  with  hundreds  of  planets,  each  connected  with  its  own 
sun  and  pursuing  its  own  distinct  course,  yet  acted  upon  in 
succession  with  different  degrees  of  force  by  the  attractive  in¬ 
fluence  of  other  suns!  All  our  boasted  powers  of  analysis 
are  completely  incompetent  for  such  determinations.  The 
faculties  of  an  archangel,  or  of  intelligences  of  a  higher  order 
than  that  of  man,  are  alone  adequate  to  such  investigations ; 
and  this  circumstance  affords  a  presumptive  evidence  that  such 
superior  intelligences  actually  exist  in  the  universe,  and  that 
man,  in  the  present  improvement  of  his  powers,  may  be  in  the 
act  of  training  for  the  employments  and  the  society  of  such 
intellectual  beings  in  a  future  scene  of  existence. 

The  following  brief  list  of  treble  and  multiple  stars,  selected 
chiefly  from  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  catalogue,  is  given  for  the  sake 
of  those  who  may  be  disposed  to  inspect  them  with  their 
telescopes* 

rt,  or  42  Aries,  in  the  ham ,  sixth  magnitude. — The  three 
stars,  which  are  all  in  a  line,  are  excessively  unequal ;  the 
largest  is  white,  and  the  two  smallest  are  mere  points.  With 
a  power  of  460,  the  two  nearest  are  H  diameter  of  the  largest 
star.  The  third  is  about  25"  from  the  largest. 

£,  or  4  or  5  Libra. — This  is  a  remarkable  double-double 
star — or  a  double  star,  each  star  itself  being  a  double  star. 
The  first  set  consists  of  stars  that  are  considerably  unequal. 
The  largest  is  very  white,  and  the  smallest  reddish.  Their 
distance  with  227  is  one  diameter  of  the  larger  one-,  the  se¬ 
cond  set  are  white  and  equal,  the  preceding  being  rather  the 
largest;  their  distance  1%  diameter  of  either.  The  star  ap¬ 
pears  of  the  fourth  magnitude. 

o,  or  48  Orion ,  a  star  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  a  little  below 
the  lowest  of  the  three  stars  in  the  belt.  This  is  a  double¬ 
treble  star,  or  two  sets  of  treble  stars,  almost  similarly  situated. 

*  As  the  following  and  similar  lists  are  inserted  for  the  purpose  of  re 
ference  to  amateur  observers,  the  general  reader,  if  he  think  proper,  may 
pass  over  such  lists  and  descriptions. 


130  LIST  OF  TREBLE  AND  MULTIPLE  STARS. 


The  two  nearest  of  the  preceding  set  are  equal ;  the  third 
larger,  and  pretty  unequal  when  compared  with  the  latter  two. 
With  a  power  of  222,  the  distance  of  the  two  nearest  is  2 
diameters  of  either.  The  two  nearest  of  the  following  set  are 
very  unequal.  The  largest  of  the  two  and  the  farthest  are 
considerably  unequal,  the  largest  being  white  and  the  smallest 
bluish.  With  a  power  of  222,  their  distance  is  about  2$ 
diameters  of  the  largest.  The  distance  of  the  two  farthest  is 
43".  Right  ascension,  5h  30';  south  declination,  2°  43b 

9 ,  or  41  Orion ,  the  small  telescopic  trapezium  in  the  nebula. 
Right  ascension,  5h  26r;  south  dec.,  5°  32b  The  stars  com¬ 
posing  this  quadruple  star  are  considerably  unequal.  The 
most  southern  star  of  the  following  side  of  the  trapezium  is 
the  largest ;  and  the  star  in  the  opposite  corner  is  the  smallest, 
the  other  two  being  nearly  equal.  The  largest  is  pale  red  5 
the  star  preceding  the  largest  inclined  to  garnet ;  and  the  star 
opposite  the  largest  dusky.  Distance  of  the  two  stars  in  the 
preceding  side,  8|  seconds  ;  in  the  southern  side,  12|  seconds ; 
in  the  following  side,  15 seconds;  and  in  the  northern  side, 20 
seconds.  The  first  star,  (in  right  ascension)  is  of  the  seventh 
magnitude,  the  second  of  the  eighth  magnitude,  the  third  of 
the  fifth  magnitude,  and  the  fourth  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  mag¬ 
nitude.  M.  Struve  found  the  angles  of  position,  in  1819,  to 
be  as  follow — 

3d  and  4th  :  1st  and  3d  : 

29.°  45r  north  following.  45°  9'  north  preceding. 

1st  and  2d  :  2d  and  4th  :  2d  and  3d  : 

58°  8r  north  fol.  31°  0'  north  pre.  74°  O'  north  pre. 

44  Orion  preceding  the  two  t’s,  or  below  1,  2,  9 — of  the  third 
or  fourth  magnitude.  The  preceding  set  of  this  double-triple 
star  consists  of  three  equal  stars,  forming  a  triangle,  and  are 
all  dusky.  The  distance  of  the  two  nearest  with  a  power  of 
227  is  about  3  diam.  The  following  set  consists  of  three 
stars  of  different  sizes,  forming  a  circle.  The  middle  star  is 
the  largest;  the  one  to  the  south  is  pretty  large;  and  the  third 
is  very  small.  The  two  largest  are  white,  and  the  smallest 
pale  red.  Distance  361".  These  stars  are  east  by  north  from 
the  bright  star  Rigel ,  at  the  distance  of  about  5°. 

12  Lynx ,  below  the  eye;  about  18°  or  19°  north-easi  of 
Capella ,  and  16°  north  of  1 3  Jlurigce.  The  two  nearest  of 
this  curious  treble  star  are  pretty  unequal.  The  larger  is  white, 
and  the  smaller  white  inclining  to  a  rose  colour.  With  a 
power  of  227  their  distance  is  1  the  diameter  of  the  smaller 
one.  The  first  and  third  are  considerably  unequal ;  the  second 


LIST  OF  TREBLE  AND  MULTIPLE  STARS. 


131 


and  third  pretty  unequal ;  the  colour  of  the  third  being  pale 
red,  and  its  distance  from  the  first  9". 

or  51  Libra;  of  the  fourth  or  fifth  magnitude.  This 
star  appears  at  first  double,  but  the  larger  of  the  two  will  be 
found  to  consist  of  two  stars.  They  are  nearly  unequal,  and 
both  white.  With  a  power  of  460  their  distance  is  i  the 
diameter  of  the  larger. 

south  of  58  Auriga,  in  a  line  parallel  to  /3  arid  0 ,  south¬ 
east  of  the  bright  star  Capella.  This  is  a  cluster  of  stars 
containing  a  double  star  of  the  second  class  and  one  of  the 
third.  The  two  of  the  second  are  very  unequal,  and  both 
red.  Their  distance  with  460  is  2\  diameters  of  the  larger. 
Those  of  the  third  class  are  equal,  and  both  red.  Distance, 
17".  Above  20  stars  are  in  view  with  a  power  of  227. 

A  large  star  1°  preceding  £  towards  41  of  the  Swan.  The 
two  nearest  are  extremely  unequal.  The  largest  is  white,  and 
the  smallest  pale  red.  Their  distance  with  460  is  2\  diame¬ 
ters  of  the  largest.  The  third  and  the  largest  are  extremely 
unequal,  and  belong  to  the  fifth  or  sixth  class. 

South  preceding  27  Swan ,  the  middle  of  three ,  the  most 

southern  of  which  is  the  27.  This  star  is  quadruple  and 

sextuple.  In  the  quadruple  of  north  preceding  set,  the  two 
nearest  are  very  unequal.  Their  distance  with  27S  is  11". 
The  two  largest  are  almost  equal,  and  both  red.  Distance, 
294b  In  the  sextuple  or  south  following  set,  the  two  largest 
are  pretty  unequal,  and  both  red.  Their  distance  is  19". — 
The  other  stars  are  as  small  as  the  smallest  of  the  quadruple 
set. 

|°  north  preceding  H  Gemini ,  (of  the  fifth  magnitude,)  in 
a  line  parallel  to  the  65  Orion ,  (in  the  club,  and  of  the  fifth 
magnitude,)  and  £  Taurus ,  the  middle  of  the  three.  The 
stars  in  this  quintuple  star  are  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  The 

two  nearest,  or  the  preceding  of  the  five,  are  extremely  un¬ 

equal.  Distance  20^"-  There  is  a  very  obscure  star  of  the 
third  class  near  the  last  of  the  three,  in  the  obscure  star  of 
the  cross.  Other  five  stars  are  dispersed  about  the  quintuple 
one. 

Between  ,3  and  £  Dolphin ,  but  nearer  to  /3.  All  the  three 
stars  are  whitish  red,  and  nearly  equal.  Distance  of  the  two 
nearest  with  a  power  of  278,  21i". 

JYear  27  Cepheus,  near  h.  The  distance  of  the  two  nearest 
of  this  treble  star  is  about  20". 

/3,  or  10  Lyra ,  (of  the  third  magnitude,  and  about  7°  south¬ 
east  of  the  bright  star  Vega.)  The  stars  of  this  quadruple 
star  are  all  white,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth,  inclining  to 


132  LIST  OF  TREBLE  AND  MULTIPLE  STARS. 


red.  The  first  and  second  are  considerably  unequal ;  the 
first  and  third  very  unequal ;  and  the  first  and  fourth  unequal. 
Distance  of  the  first  and  second,  44rb 

/3,  or  78  Gemini ,  (Pollux.)  The  stars  of  this  multiple  star 
<ire  extremely  unequal.  The  nearest  distance  is  V  5711 ;  the 
next  distance  is  3'  I7,r. 

In  the  Unicorn’s  head.  This  multiple  star  consists  of  one 
star  with  about  twelve  around  it.  16°  west  of  Procyon. 

£,  .or  16  Cancer.  This  very  minute  treble  star  requires 
very  favourable  circumstances  to  be  distinctly  seen.  The  two 
stars  of  which  the  preceding  one  consists  are  considerably 
unequal.  The  largest  of  these  is  larger  than  the  single  star, 
and  the  least  of  the  two  is  less  than  the  single  star.  The 
first  and  second  largest  and  pretty  unequal,  and  the  second 
and  third  pretty  unequal.  The  two  nearest  are  pale  red. 
They  are  just  separated  with  a  power  of  278,  and  with  460 
their  distance  is  i  the  diameter  of  the  smaller  one.  Zeta 
Cancri  is  situated  about  12  or  13  degrees  south-east  of  Pol¬ 
lux,  nearly  in  a  line  parallel  to  that  which  joins  Castor  and 
Pollux,  and  nearly  the  same  distance  north  by  east  from 
Procyon.  It  appears  as  a  star  of  the  fifth  or  sixth  magnitude, 
and  is  sometimes  distinguished  by  the  name  Tegmine.  As  a 
double  star  it  is  easily  distinguished  by  a  power  of  140,  with 
a  3^  feet  achromatic  telescope,  whose  aperture  is  2|  inches, 
and  might  perhaps  be  seen  with  a  power  of  100.  But  it 
requires  a  much  higher  power  to  distinguish  it  as  a  treble  star. 

Most  of  the  above  stars  may  be  found  by  consulting  large 
planispheres  of  the  heavens,  or  a  common  celestial  globe. 
To  facilitate  the  finding  out  of  their  positions,  I  have  inserted 
in  the  above  list  some  special  directions,  which  may  perhaps 
be  of  use  to  the  astronomical  tyro  who  is  furnished  with  a 
moderately  good  telescope.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that,  even 
on  some  of  our  latest  18-inch  celestial  globes,  several  of  the 
stars  above  referred  to  are  not  distinctly  marked,  either  with 
their  number  or  with  the  Greek  letters  by  which  they  are 
generally  distinguished,  and  some  of  them  are  altogether 
omitted;  such,  for  instance,  as  the  celebrated  star  61  Cygni , 
which  is  a  double  star,  and  whose  proper  motion  is  greater 
than  that  of  any  other  star  yet  discovered  in  the  heavens. 


GRANDEUR  OF  THE  SIDEREAL  HEAVENS. 


133 


CHAPTER  X. 

ON  THE  MILKY  WAY. 

As  we  advance  in  our  survey  of  the  distant  regions  of  the 
universe,  the  astonishing  grandeur  and  extent  of  the  sidereal 
heavens  gradually  opens  to  our  view.  We  have  hitherto 
considered  only  a  few  objects  on  the  outskirts  of  the  heavens, 
in  respect  4;o  their  distance,  magnitude,  and  the  wonderful 
complication  of  systematic  motions  which  prevails  among 
them.  Had  we  no  other  objects  to  engage  our  attention, 
ages  might  be  spent  in  contemplating  and  admiring  the  eco¬ 
nomy  and  magnificence  of  those  starry  groups  which  appear 
to  the  unaided  eye  on  the  nearer  boundary  of  our  firmament. 
But  all  that  is  visible  to  man’s  unassisted  vision  is  as  nothing 
when  compared  with  the  immensity  of  august  and  splendid 
objects  which  stretch  themselves  in  boundless  perspective 
towards  infinity.  The  discoveries  of  modern  astronomy  have 
enlarged  the  sphere  of  our  conceptions  far  beyond  what  could 
formerly  have  been  surmised,  and  opened  to  view  a  universe 
boundless  as  its  Creator,  where  human  imagination  is  lost 
and  confounded,  and  in  which  man  appears  like  a  mere  micro¬ 
scopic  animalculum,  and  his  whole  habitation  as  a  particle  of 
vapour  when  compared  to  the  ocean.  In  contemplating  the 
visible  firmament  with  the  unassisted  eye,  we  behold  only  the 
mere  portals,  as  it  were,  which  lead  to  the  interior  recesses 
of  the  vast  Temple  of  Creation.  When  we  direct  our  views 
beyond  these  outer  portals,  by  means  of  the  most  powerful 
telescopes,  we  obtain  a  view  of  some  of  its  more  magnificent 
porches,  and  a  faint  glimpse  of  those  splendid  apartments 
which  we  shall  never  be  able  to  explore,  but  which  lead  us 
to  form  the  most  august  conceptions  of  the  extent  and  grandeur 
of  what  is  concealed  from  our  view.  In  entering  this  Tem¬ 
ple  “not  made  with  hands,”  the  splendour  of  its  decorations, 
the  amplitude  of  its  scale,  and  the  awfulness  of  infinitude, 
forcibly  strike  the  imagination.  There  is  sufficient  to  awaken 
into  exercise  all  the  powers  and  feelings  of  devotion,  and  to 
excite  us  to  fall  down  in  humility  and  adoration  before  Him 
whose  word  spoke  into  existence  this  astonishing  fabric,  and 
w  whose  kingdom  ruleth  over  all.”  These  reflections  may 
not  appear  altogether  unappropriate  when  entering  on  a 
Vol.  VIII.  12 


134 


POSITION  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY. 


description  of  the  Milky  Way ,  which  contains  objects  cal¬ 
culated  to  excite  our  highest  admiration. 

When  we  take  a  general  view  of  the  heavens  about  the 
months  of  August,  September,  and  October,  and  during  the 
winter  months,  we  cannot  fail  observing  a  large,  irregular, 
whitish  zone  stretching  across  the  sky,  with  a  few  interrup¬ 
tions,  from  one  end  of  the  firmament  to  another.  This  mighty 
zone,  thus  stretching  itself  around  us,  is  sometimes  termed 
the  galaxy ,  sometimes  the  Via  Lactea ,  but  more  frequently, 
in  plain  English,  the  Milky  Way ,  from  its  resemblance  to  the 
whiteness  of  milk.  This  luminous  band  is  visible  to  every 
observer,  and  is  the  only  real  and  sensible  circle  in  the 
heavens.  When  traced  throughout  its  different  directions,  it 
is  found  to  encircle  the  whole  sphere  of  the  heavens,  though 
in  some  parts  of  its  course  it  is  broader  and  more  brilliant 
than  in  others.  It  forms  nearly  a  great  circle  of  the  sphere, 
but  it  coincides  neither  with  our  equator,  ecliptic,  nor  colures, 
nor  with  any  other  artificial  circles  which  we  conceive  as 
drawn  around  the  firmament,  in  all  ages,  so  far  as  we  know 
this  wonderful  zone  has  retained  the  same  position  among  the 
constellations  as  at  the  present  day,  and  is  frequently  alluded 
to  both  by  the  astronomers  and  the  poets  of  antiquity.  Thus 
Ovid,  on  account  of  its  lustre,  represents  it  as  the  high  road 
to  heaven,  or  the  court  of  Jupiter  : — 

“  A  way  there  is  in  heaven’s  extended  plain, 

Which  when  the  skies  are  clear  as  seen  below, 

And  mortals  by  the  name  of  Milky  know  ; 

The  ground-work  is  of  stars,  through  which  the  road 
Lies  open  to  the  Thunderer’s  abode,” 


And  Milton,  in  his  “Paradise  Lost,”  alludes  to  it  in  these 
lines : — 

“  A  broad  and  ample  road,  whose  dust  is  gold, 

And  pavement  stars,  as  stars  to  us  appear  ; 

Seen  in  the  galaxy  that  Milky  Way, 

Like  to  a  circling  zone  powdered  with  stars.” 

This  zone  may  be  traced  in  the  heavens  as  follows  : — Be¬ 
ginning  near  the  northern  quarter  of  the  heavens,  at  the  head 
of  Cepheus,  or  about  30°  from  the  north  pole,  we  may  trace  it 
through  Cassiopeia,  Perseus,  Auriga,  part  of  Orion,  and  the 
feet  of  Gemini.  At  this  last  point  it  crosses  the  Zodiac,  and 
proceeding  southward  across  the  equinoctial  into  the  southern 
hemisphere,  it  passes  through  the  Unicorn  and  the  middle  of 
tiie  ship  Argo,  where  it  is  most  luminous.  It  then  passes 


FORM  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY. 


135 


through  Charles’s  Oak,  the  feet  of  the  Centaur,  the  Cross,  the 
Altar,  the  tail  of  Scorpio,  the  bow  of  Sagittarius,  and  a  part 
of  Ophiuchus.  Here  it  separates  into  two  branches  as  it 
passes  again  over  the  Zodiac  into  the  northern  hemisphere. 
One  branch  runs  through  the  tail  of  Scorpio,  the  bow  of 
Sagittarius,  the  shield  of  Sobieski,  the  feet  of  Antinous, 
Aquila,  Delphinus,  the  Arrow,  and  the  Swan.  The  other 
branch  passes  through  the  upper  part  of  the  tail  of  Scorpio, 
the  side  of  Serpentarius,  Taurus  Poniatowski,  the  Goose,  and 
the  neck  of  the  Swan,  where  it  again  unites  with  the  other 
branch,  and  passes  on  to  the  head  of  Cepheus,  the  place  of  its 
beginning.  After  sending  off  the  two  branches  above  mentioned, 
they  unite  again  after  remaining  separate  for  the  space  of  more 
than  100  degrees.  There  is  another  small  separation  of  the 
Milky  Stream  between  Cassiopeia  and  Perseus.  The  two 
streams  appear  to  leave  a  blank  about  the  head  of  Perseus, 
and  a  considerable  space  on  each  side  of  it,  to  the  extent  of 
about  thirty  degrees  in  length,  and  three  in  breadth,  and  are 
again  joined  into  one  stream  in  the  sword  of  Perseus,  adja¬ 
cent  to  Cassiopeia.* 

From  the  above  description  it  will  appear  that  the  form, 
breadth,  and  general  appearance  of  this  zone  are  various  in 
different  parts  of  its  circuit  round  the  heavens.  In  some 
places  it  appears  dense  and  luminous,  in  others  faint  and 
scattered;  in  certain  points  it  appears  broad,  and  in  others 
narrow.  Its  breadth  in  some  places,  as  between  Auriga  and 
Perseus,  is  only  about  four  or  five  degrees ;  in  other  places,  as 
in  the  southern  parts  of  Scorpio,  Ara,  and  the  Cross,  its  breadth 
is  from  ten  to  fifteen  or  eighteen  degrees.  It  assumes  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  a  double  path  from  the  tail  of  the  Scorpion,  through 
the  bow  of  Sagittarius,  Antinous,  Aquila,  Taurus  Poniatowski, 
the  Goose,  and  part  of  the  Swan.  It  is  more  or  less  visible  at 
every  season  of  the  year ;  but  in  Britain  and  in  other  north¬ 
ern  latitudes  it  is  most  conspicuous  during  the  months  of  Au¬ 
gust,  September,  and  October,  the  latter  part  of  July,  and  the 
beginning  of  November.  About  the  middle  of  August,  at 
nine  o’clock  in  the  evening,  it  may  be  seen  stretching  in  an 
oblique  direction  over  the  heavens,  from  north-east  to  south¬ 
west,  and  its  apparent  motion  along  the  heavens  may  be  traced 
along  with  that  of  the  other  constellations.  At  other  seasons 
of  the  year,  and  at  other  hours  of  the  night,  its  position  and 
form  will  appear  somewhat  different.  It  appears  most  brilliant 

*  See  the  direction  of  this  zone  in  the  map  of  the  stars  on  Mercator’s 
projection. 


136  MULTITUDE  OF  STARS  IN  THE  GALAXY. 


in  the  southern  hemisphere,  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Argo,  Ara,  and  the  splendid  constellation  of  the  Cross. 
Between  the  tropics,  where  the  atmosphere  is  clear  and  se¬ 
rene  it  appears  most  vivid  and  brilliant.  Mr.  Brydon  informs 
us  that,  from  the  top  of  Etna,  it  appeared  “like  a  pure  flame 
that  shot  across  the  heavens.” 

The  ancients  seem  to  have  conjectured  that  the  whiteness 
of  this  zone  was  owing  to  a  confluence  of  stars  ;  for  Ovid,  in 
the  lines  above  quoted,  says,  “  Its  ground-work  is  of  stars.” 
Soon  after  the  invention  of  the  telescope  this  conjecture  was 
confirmed,  and  astronomers  were  astonished  at  the  number  of 
stars  which  appeared  in  this  bright  zone  of  the  heavens  ;  and 
their  number  appeared  to  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the 
magnifying  powers  of  their  telescopes.  But  it  was  not  before 
Sir  W.  Herschel  applied  his  powerful  instruments  to  this  re¬ 
gion  of  the  heavens  that  its  profundities  were  explored,  and 
all  its  minute  nebulous  parts  shewn  to  consist  of  countless 
myriads  of  stars,  of  every  apparent  magnitude,  stretching  on¬ 
ward  to  the  regions  of  infinity,  till  they  appeared  to  be  lost  to 
the  view,  even  when  assisted  by  the  largest  telescopes.  On 
first  presenting  telescopes  of  considerable  power  to  this  splen¬ 
did  zone,  we  are  lost  in  amazement  at  the  number,  the  variety, 
and  the  beautiful  configurations  of  the  stars  of  which  it  is  com¬ 
posed.  In  certain  parts  of  it  every  slight  motion  of  the  teles¬ 
cope  presents  new  groups  and  new  configurations,  and  the 
new  and  wondrous  scene  is  continued  over  a  space  of  many 
degrees  in  succession.  In  several  fields  of  view,  occupying  a 
space  not  much  more  than  twice  the  breadth  of  the  moon, 
you  perceive  more  of  these  twinkling  luminaries  than  all  the 
stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  throughout  the  whole  canopy 
of  heaven.  You  seem  to  penetrate,  as  it  were,  to  the  remoter 
boundaries  of  creation,  and  feel  bewildered  and  lost  amidst 
the  immensity  of  the  universe.  I  have  never  been  inspired 
with  higher  ideas  of  grandeur  and  sublimity,  nor  felt  deeper 
emotions  of  humility  and  reverence,  than  when  occasionally 
contemplating  this  stupendous  scene  through  telescopes  of 
considerable  brilliancy  and  power.  There  is  not  another 
scene  in  creation,  open  to  the  view  of  mortals,  calculated  to 
fill  the  soul  with  more  august  conceptions,  or  to  inspire  it 
with  more  profound  admiration  and  awe.  In  such  surveys 
we  behold  “  new  heavens”  and  other  firmaments  rising  to 
view,  whose  distances  baffle  the  utmost  stretch  of  imagination. 

‘  O  what  a  confluence  of  etherial  fires 
From  sun?  unnumbered  down  the  steep  of  heaven 
Streams  to  a  point  and  centres  on  my  sight.” 


MULTITUDE  OF  STARS  IN  THE  MILKY  WAY.  137 

The  following  contains  a  brief  summary  of  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel’s  observations  on  this  region  of  the  heavens,  made  with 
a  Newtonian  reflecting  telescope  of  twenty  feet  focal  length 
and  an  aperture  of  eighteen  inches.  He  found  that  this  in¬ 
strument  completely  resolved  all  the  whitish  appearances  into 
stars,  which  the  telescopes  he  formerly  used  had  not  light 
enough  to  do.  The  portion  he  first  observed  was  that  about 
the  hand  and  club  of  Orion,  and  he  found  in  this  space  an 
astonishing  number  of  stars,  whose  number  he  endeavoured 
to  estimate  by  counting  many  fields ;  that  is,  the  apparent 
space  in  the  heavens  he  could  see  at  once  through  his  teles¬ 
cope,  and  computing  from  a  mean  of  these  how  many  may  be 
contained  in  a  given  portion  of  the  milky  way.  In  the  most 
vacant  place  to  be  met  with  in  that  neighbourhood  he  found 
63  stars;  other  six  fields  contained  110,  60,  70,  90,  70,  and 
74  stars,  a  mean  of  all  which  gave  79  for  the  number  of  stars 
to  each  field;  and  then  he  found  that,  by  allowing  fifteen 
minutes  for  the  diameter  of  his  field  of  view,  a  belt  of  fifteen 
degrees  long  and  two  broad,  which  he  had  often  seen  pass 
through  his  telescope  in  an  hour’s  time,  could  not  contain 
less  than *50,000  stars,  large  enough  to  be  distinctly  numbered; 
besides  which  he  suspected  twice  as  many  more,  which  could 
be  seen  only  now  and  then,  by  faint  glimpses,  for  want  of 
sufficient  light.  The  reader  may  acquire  some  conceptions 
of  this  immense  number  of  stars  occupying  so  small  a  space, 
if  he  consider  that  it  is  fifty  times  more  than  all  the  stars  which 
the  naked  eye  can  discern  at  one  time  throughout  the  whole 
heavens,  and  that  the  space  they  occupy  is  only  the  y-jL^-th 
part  of  the  visible  canopy  of  the  heavens ;  so  that  if  every 
part  of  the  firmament  were  equally  rich  in  stars,  there  would 
be  within  the  reach  of  such  a  telescope  as  Herschel’s  no  less 
than  68,750,000,  or  sixty-eight  millions,  seven  hundred  and  - 
fifty  thousand  stars.  And  we  are  further  to  consider  that  it 
was  only  in  the  comparatively  w  vacant  places”  of  this  zone 
that  the  number  of  stars  above  stated  were  perceived. 

In  some  of  his  observations  of  other  parts  of  this  zone,  Sir 
W.  Herschel  informs  us  that  he  descried  a  much  greater  num¬ 
ber  of  these  luminaries  in  a  similar  extent  of  space.  u  In  the 
most  crowded  parts  of  the  Milky  Way,”  he  says,  u  I  have  had 
fields  of  view  that  contained  no  fewer  than  588  stars,  and 
these  were  continued  for  many  minutes,  so  that  in  one  quarter 
of  an  hour’s  time  there  passed  no  less  than  116,000  stars 
through  the  field  of  view  of  my  telescope.”  In  order  to  ap¬ 
preciate  this  description,  we  are  to  suppose  the  telescope  to 
have  been  fixed  in  one  position  at  the  time  of  observation,  and 

12* 


* 

1  38  NUMBERS  OF  STARS  IN  THE  MILKY  WAY. 

that  by  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  earth,  or  the  apparent  motion 
of  the  heavens,  the  first  field  of  stars  was  gradually  carried 
out  of  view,  and  other  fields  appeared  in  succession,  till,  in 
the  space  of  fifteen  minutes  of  time  one  hundred  and  sixteen 
thousand  stars  passed  over  the  field  of  vision.  Now,  the  field 
of  view  taken  in  by  the  telescope  was  only  15'  of  a  degree,  a 
space  which  is  less  than  the  one-fourth  part  of  the  apparent 
size  of  the  moon.  In  this  narrow  field  were  seen  about  as 
many  stars  as  are  generally  beheld  throughout  the  whole  sky 
by  the  naked  eye  in  a  clear  winter’s  night ;  for  although  nearly 
a  thousand  stars  might  be  seen  by  a  very  acute  eye  in  a  clear 
atmosphere,  yet  there  are  few  persons  that  in  our  climate 
could  distinctly  recognise  above  600  or  700  stars  even  in  a 
clear  night.  At  another  time,  this  indefatigable  astronomer 
perceived  no  less  than  two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  thousand 
stars  pass  before  his  view  in  the  course  of  forty-one  minutes. 
In  the  space  between  /3  and  y  of  the  Swan,  the  stars  are  found 
clustering,  with  a  kind  of  division  between  them,  so  that  they 
may  be  considered  as  clustering  towards  two  different  regions. 
In  this  space,  taking  an  average  breadth  of  about  five  degrees 
of  it,  he  found  from  observation  that  it  contains  more  than 
331,000  stars,  which  gives  above  one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
thousand  for  each  clustering  collection. 

Supposing  the  Milky  Way  to  be,  on  an  average,  twelve 
degrees  broad,  the  whole  of  it  will  contain  an  area  of  4320 
degrees  =  12  X  360.  Now,  if  the  space  examined  by  Her- 
schel  between  Beta  and  Gam?na  of  the  Swan  be  about  four¬ 
teen  degrees  in  length  and  five  degrees  in  breadth,  it  will  con¬ 
tain  an  area  of  seventy  degrees,  which  is  somewhat  less  than  the 
^L-st  part  of  the  space  occupied  by  the  Milky  Way.  Were  we 
to  suppose  every  part  of  this  zone  equally  rich  in  stars  as  the 
space  now  referred  to,  it  will  contain  no  less  than  20,191,000 
stars,  or  more  than  twenty  thousand  times  the  number  of  those 
which  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  The  whole  visible  hea¬ 
vens,  considered  as  a  spherical  plane,  contains  an  area  of 
41,253  degrees.  Now,  could  we  suppose  every  portion  of 
the  firmament  to  be  equally  well  replenished  with  stars  as  the 
milky  zone,  there  would  be  more  than  195,000,000*  of  stars 
in  the  heavens  discernible  by  such  a  telescope  as  Herschel’s; 
out  as  there  are  comparatively  few  other  regions  of  the  heavens 
so  densely  crowded  with  stars  as  the  Milky  Way,  we  must 
make  a  certain  abatement  from  this  estimate,  though  it  is  pro 

*  =  589fJ  x  331,000=:  195,067,757. 


DISTANCES  OP  STARS  IN  THE  MILKY  WAY.  13S 

bable  there  are  more  than  one  hundred  millions  of  stars  within 
the  reach  of  our  best  instruments  were  all  the  spaces  of  our 
firmament  thoroughly  explored ;  and  future  generations,  with 
more  powerful  telescopes,  may  add  indefinitely  to  the  number. 
Had  we  taken  the  most  crowded  field  of  stars  which  Herschel 
perceived  through  his  telescope  (namely,  588)  as  our  standard 
for  estimating  their  number,  the  amount  of  stars  in  the  Milky 
Way  would  have  been  forty  millions,  and  in  the  whole  hea¬ 
vens,  38S  millions.  In  short,  to  use  the  words  of  Sir  John 
Herschel — uThis  remarkable  belt,  when  examined  through 
powerful  telescopes,  is  found  (wonderful  to  relate !)  to  consist 
entirely  of  stars  scattered  by  millions ,  like  glittering  dust,  on 
the  black  ground  of  the  general  heavens.” 

In  regard  to  the  distances  of  some  of  these  stars,  we  may 
easily  conceive  that  they  are  immense,  and  consequently  far 
removed  from  our  distinct  comprehension.  Sir  W.  Herschel, 
in  endeavouring  to  determine  a  “  sounding  line™  as  he  calls 
it,  to  fathom  the  depth  of  the  stratum  of  stars  in  the  Milky 
Way,  endeavours  to  prove,  by  pretty  conclusive  reasoning, 
that  his  twenty  feet  telescope  penetrated  to  a  distance  in  the 
profoundity  of  space  not  less  than  497  times  the  distance  of 
Sirius  ;  so  that  a  stratum  of  stars  amounting  to  497  in  thick¬ 
ness,  each  of  them  as  far  distant  beyond  another  as  the  star 
Sirius  is  distant  from  our  sun,  was  within  the  reach  of  his 
vision  when  looking  through  that  telescope.  Now,  the  least 
distance  at  which  we  can  conceive  Sirius  to  be  from  the  earth 
or  the  sun  is  20,000,000,000,000,  or  twenty  billions  of  miles* 
and  consequently  the  most  distant  stars  visible  in  his  tele¬ 
scope  must  be  four  hundred  and  ninety-seven  times  this  dis¬ 
tance,  that  is,  9,940,000,000,000,000,  or  nearly  ten  thousand 
billions  of  miles  !  Of  such  immense  distance  it  is  evident 
we  can  form  nothing  approaching  to  a  distinct  conception. 
We  can  only  approximate  to  a  rude  and  imperfect  idea  by 
estimating  the  time  in  which  the  swiftest  bodies  in  nature 
would  move  over  such  vast  spaces.  Light,  which  is  endowed 
with  the  swiftest  degree  of  motion  yet  known,  and  which 
flies  at  the  rate  of  nearly  twelve  millions  of  miles  every 
minute,  would  require  one  thousand  six  hundred  and  forty 
years  before  it  could  traverse  the  mighty  interval  stated  above  ; 
and  a  cannon  ball,  flying  at  the  rate  of  500  miles  an  hour, 
would  occupy  more  than  2,267,855,068,  or  two  thousand, 
two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  millions,  eight  hundred  thousand 
years,  in  passing  through  the  same  space ! — a  period  of  years 
before  which  all  the  duration  that  has  passed  since  man  was 


140 


REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  SCENE 


placed  on  this  globe  appears  only  like  a  few  fleeting  hours, 
or  u  as  an  handbreadth  or  a  span.”* 

Here,  then,  let  us  pause  for  a  moment,  and  consider  the 
august  spectacle  presented  to  view.  We  behold  a  few  whitish 
spaces  in  the  firmament,  almost  overlooked  by  a  common 
observer  when  he  casts  a  rude  glance  upon  the  evening  sky ; 
yet  in  this  apparently  irregular  belt,  which  appears  only  like 
an  accidental  tinge  on  the  face  of  the  firmament,  we  discover, 
by  optical  instruments,  what  appears  to  be  an  amazing  and 
boundless  universe.  We  behold  not  only  ten  thousands,  but 
millions  of  splendid  suns,  where  not  a  single  orb  can  be  per¬ 
ceived  by  the  unassisted  eye.  The  distance  at  which  these 
luminous  globes  are  placed  from  our  abode  is  altogether  over¬ 
whelming  ;  even  the  most  lively  imagination  drops  its  wing 
when  attempting  its  flight  into  such  unfathomable  regions. 
The  scenes  of  grandeur  and  magnificence  connected  with 
such  august  objects  are  utterly  overwhelming  to  such  frail 
and  limited  beings  as  man,  and  perhaps  even  more  exalted 
orders  of  intelligences  may  find  it  difficult  to  form  even  an  ap¬ 
proximate  idea  of  objects  so  distant,  so  numerous,  and  so  sub¬ 
lime. 

On  our  first  excursions  into  the  celestial  regions  we  are  al¬ 
most  frightened  at  the  idea  of  the  distance  of  such  a  body  as 
Saturn,  which  a  cannon  ball  projected  from  the  earth,  and  fly¬ 
ing  with  its  utmost  velocity,  would  not  reach  in  180  years 

*  The  celebrated  Schroeter,  of  LilienthaL,  was  a  frequent  observer  of 
the  stars  which  crowd  the  Milky  Way.  He  was  in  the  habit  of  observ 
ing  with  one  of  the  largest  reflecting  telescopes  to  be  found  in  Europe. 
This  telescope  was  one  of  the  finest  ever  constructed,  and  was  the  work¬ 
manship  of  Professor  Schrader,  of  Kiel.  The  diameter  of  the  speculum 
was  about,  nineteen  inches ;  it  was  about  two  inches  in  thickness,  and 
towards  the  edge  cast  conical,  so  that  the  diameter  of  the  polished  surface 
is  almost  a  quarter  of  an  inch  less  than  at  the  back,  which  circumstance 
was  considered  of  the  greatest  utility  in  the  finishing  and  polishing.  It 
had  a  focus  of  twenty-six  feet,  and,  without  the  frame,  weighed  eighty 
pounds.  The  large  octangular  tube  was  constructed  with  boards,  made 
impenetrable  to  rain  ;  and  the  instrument  when  ready  for  use  was  twenty- 
seven  feet  long.  An  immense  quantity  of  apparatus  and  machinery  was 
requisite  for  steadying  and  moving  it.  The  figure  of  the  speculum  was 
so  perfect,  that  it  could  bear  a  power  of  800  or  1000  times  without  dimi¬ 
nishing  the  aperture.  Its  capability  of  resolving  the  nebulosity  of  the 
Milky  Way  seems  to  have  equalled  that  of  the  telescopes  of  Herschel. 
He  allowed  twenty  degrees  of  its  length  from  a  Cygni  to  pass  through  the 
field,  and  the  sight  drew  from  him  the  natural  exclamation,  “  What  Om¬ 
nipotence!”  The  power  on  the  telescope  in  such  observations  was  179, 
and  the  diameter  of  the  field,  fifteen  minutes  ;  and  the  number  of  stars  it 
contained  at  once  could  never  be  counted.  They  were  never  estimated 
at  less  than  fifty  or  sixty,  and  often  reached  or  exceeded  150.  He  cal¬ 
culated  that  the  number  of  stars  visible  through  this  telescope  could  not 
be  less  than  12,000,000. 


EXHIBITED  BY  THE  MILKY  WAY. 


141 


We  are  astonished  at  the  size  of  such  a  planet  as  Jupiter, 
which  could  contain  within  its  circumference  more  than  a 
thousand  globes  as  large  as  the  earth.  We  are  j ustly  amazed 
at  the  stupendous  magnitude  of  the  sun,  which  is  a  thousand 
times  the  size  of  Jupiter,  and  which  illuminates  with  its 
splendour  a  sphere  of  more  than  five  thousand  millions  of 
miles  in  circumference.  But  what  are  all  such  distances  and 
dimensions,  vast  and  amazing  as  they  are,  compared  with  the 
astonishing  grandeur  of  the  scene  before  us  ?  They  sink 
into  comparative  insignificance,  and  are  almost  lost  sight  of 
amidst  the  myriads  of  splendid  suns  which  occupy  the  pro¬ 
fundities  of  the  Milky  Way.  What  is  one  sun  and  one  plane¬ 
tary  system  in  the  presence  of  ten  millions  of  suns  perhaps 
far  more  resplendent,  and  of  a  hundred  times  this  number  of 
spacious  worlds  which  doubtless  revolve  around  them  ?  Y et 
this  scene,  stupendous  as  it  is,  is  not  the  universe.  It  is  per¬ 
haps,  as  we  shall  see,  only  a  comparatively  small  corner  of 
creation,  which  beings  at  an  immensely  greater  distance  will 
behold  as  an  obscure  and  scarcely  discernible  speck  on  the  out¬ 
skirts  of  their  firmament;  so  that  amidst  this  vast  assemblage  of 
material  existence  we  may  say,  in  the  language  of  the  inspired 
prophet,  when  speaking  of  the  Almighty,  that  even  here  is 
but  44  the  hiding  of  his  power.”  What  then  must  the  whole 
of  creation  be  ?  and  what  must  be  the  ineffable  splendour  and 
majesty  of  Him  who  laid  the  plan  of  the  mighty  fabric,  whose 
breath  kindled  so  many  millions  of  suns,  whose  hands  set  in 
motion  so  many  myriads  of  rolling  worlds,  who  supports 
them  in  their  ample  and  diversified  courses,  and  whose  moral 
government  extends  over  all  ?  And  what  is  man,  and  the 
globe  on  which  he  dwells,  amidst  this  scene  of  immensity 
and  magnificence  ?— -an  atom  in  the  infinity  of  space — a  par¬ 
ticle  of  vapour  compared  to  the  ocean — a  being  who,  in  re¬ 
spect  to  the  magnificence  of  creation  and  the  grandeur  of  his 
Creator,  is  44  as  nothing,  and  is  counted  to  him  as  less  than 
nothing  and  vanity.” 

Yet,  amidst  all  the  magnificence  of  this  vast  system  of 
universal  nature,  man  is  not  forgotten  by  his  Maker ;  his  hand 
supports  him,  his  wisdom  guides  him,  and  his  overflowing 
goodness  provides,  in  a  thousand  different  modes,  for  his 
happiness  and  enjoyment.  He  shares  of  the  Divine  bene¬ 
ficence  and  care  in  common  with  all  the  bright  intelligences 
that  people  the  amplitudes  of  creation,  and  is  as  amply  pro¬ 
vided  for  as  if  the  Almighty  had  no  other  world  under  his 
superintendence.  Within  the  moral  government  of  the  Crea 
tor  of  the  universe  he  may  rest  secure  and  confident  that  he 


142 


THE  MILKY  WAY. 


is  not  overlooked  amidst  the  immensity  of  being,  for  his  pre¬ 
sence  pervades  the  infinity  of  space,  and  his  knowledge  ex¬ 
tends  to  the  minutest  movements  of  all  his  creatures.  Under 
his  paternal  care,  not  only  man,  but  the  crawling  worm,  the 
fluttering  insect,  the  little  ant,  and  even  the  microscopic  ani- 
malculum,  find  a  home  and  provisions,  as  well  as  the  highest 
order  of  his  creatures  ;  for  44  he  openeth  his  hand  and  sup- 
plieth  the  wants  of  every  living  being.” 

Notwithstanding  the  size  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  the  im¬ 
mense  number  of  stars  of  which  it  is  composed,  it  is  now 
considered  as  nothing  more  than  one  of  the  nebulae ,  or  starry 
systems,  which  appear  to  be  dispersed  throughout  the  uni¬ 
verse.  It  is  supposed,  and  with  some  reason,  that  it  is  the 
nebula,  or  assemblage  of  stars,  in  which  our  sun  is  placed. 
Its  situation  in  this  nebula  is  reckoned  to  be,  not  in  the  centre 
of  its  thickness,  but  rather  towards  one  of  its  sides,  near  the 
point  where  it  diverges  into  two  branches.  According  to  this 
hypothesis,  the  Milky  Way  is  to  be  considered  as  the  projec¬ 
tion  of  the  nebula  upon  the  concave  surface  of  the  sky,  as 
seen  from  a  point  within  it.  44  We  gather  this,”  says  Sir  W. 
Herschel,  44  from  the  appearance  of  the  galaxy,  which  seems 
to  encompass  the  whole  heavens,  as  it  certainly  must  do  if 
the  sun  is  within  the  same  ;  for  suppose  a  number  of  stars 
arranged  between  two  parallel  planes  indefinitely  extended 
every  way,  but  at  a  given  considerable  distance  from  one 
another,  and  calling  this  a  sidereal  stratum,  an  eye  placed 

somewhere  within  it  will  see  all  the  stars  in  the  direction  of 

(/ 

the  planes  of  the  stratum  projected  into  a  great  circle,  which 
will  appear  lucid  on  account  of  the  accumulation  of  the  stars, 
while  the  rest  of  the  heavens  at  the  sides  will  only  seem  to 
be  scattered  over  with  constellations,  more  or  less  crowded, 
according  to  the  distance  of  the  planes  or  number  of  stars 
contained  in  the  thickness  or  sides  of  the  stratum.” 

Thus,  if  the  solar  system  be  supposed  at  »S,  in  the  middle 
of  the  nebula  ah  c  d  e  f  with  two  branches,  a  c,  h  c,  (fig. 
38,)  the  nebula  will  be  projected  into  a  circle  A  B  C  JD,  the 
arches  A  B  C,  A  EC ,  being  the  projection  of  the  branches 
a  c,  b  c,  while  the  stars  near  the  sides  of  the  stratum  will  be 
seen  scattered  over  the  remaining  part  of  the  heavens  among 
the  spaces  F ,  /,  If  K ,  G.  If  the  eye  were  placed  some¬ 
where  without  the  stratum,  at  no  very  great  distance,  the 
appearance  of  the  stars  within  it  would  assume  the  form  of 
one  of  the  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere,  which  would  be  more 
or  less  contracted  according  to  the  distance  of  the  eye ;  and 


THE  MILKY  WAY. 


143 


if  this  distance  were  exceedingly  increased,  the  whole  stratum 
might  at  last  be  drawn  together  into  a  lucid  spot  of  any  shape 
according  to  the  position,  length,  and  height  of  the  stratum. 

Fig.  38. 


In  order  to  determine  those  points,  Sir  W.  Herschel  put  in 
practice  a  method  which  he  calls  gauging  the  heavens ,  whicn 
consists  in  repeatedly  counting  the  number  of  stars  in  the 


144  FORM  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY  DELINEATED. 

fields  of  view  very  near  each  other,  by  which  he  obtained  a 
mean  of  the  number  of  stars  in  that  part  of  the  heavens.  He 
then  proceeds  on  the  supposition  that  the  stars  are  equally 
scattered,  and  from  the  number  of  stars  in  any  part  of  the 
heavens  he  deduces  the  length  of  his  visual  ray,  or  the  dis¬ 
tance  through  which  his  telescope  had  penetrated,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  distance  of  the  remotest  stars  in  that  particular 
region  of  the  heavens.  To  illustrate  this,  let  us  suppose  the 
Milky  Way  a  nebula,  and  that  the  sun  is  not  placed  in  its  cen¬ 
tre.  Then,  on  the  supposition  that  the  stars  are  nearly  equally 
scattered,  it  is  evident  that  the  part  of  the  Milky  Way  where 
the  stars  are  most  numerous  must  extend  furthest  from  the 
sun,  and  the  parts  where  they  are  less  numerous  must  extend 
to  a  less  distance.  Proceeding  on  these  grounds,  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel  found  the  length  of  his  visual  ray  for  different  parts  of 
the  heavens.  In  some  cases  he  found  it  equal  to  497  times 
the  distance  of  Sirius,  supposed  to  be  the  nearest  star,  as  for¬ 
merly  stated.  The  following  is  a  representation  of  a  section 
of  the  nebula  of  the  Milky  Way,  according  to  his  delineation. 
This  section  is  one  which  makes  an  angle  of  thirty-five  de¬ 
grees  with  our  equator,  crossing  it  in  124^  and  304J  degrees. 
A  celestial  globe  adjusted  to  the  latitude  of  fifty-five  degrees 
north,  and  having  a  Ceti  near  the  meridian,  will  have  the  plane 
of  this  section  pointed  out  by  the  horizon.  If  the  solar  sys¬ 
tem  (fig.  39)  be  at  »§,  the  brightness  of  the  Milky  Way  will 
be  greatest  in  the  directions  S  a, ,  S  5,  S  p ,  where  the  stars  that 
intervene  are  most  numerous,  or  where  the  visual  ray  is  long¬ 
est.  In  the  lateral  directions  S  n,  S  m,  the  nebulosity  will 
not  appear  from  the  small  number  of  interposing  stars, 
and  the  stars,  though  numerous,  will  appear  more  scattered. 
In  the  direction  $  c,  on  account  of  the  opening  between  a  and 
Z>,  there  will  be  an  empty  space  contained  between  these  two 
branches  where  the  nebulosity  is  not  observed,  as  is  the  case 
in  the  Milky  Zone  between /x  Scorpio  in  the  south  and-yCygni 
in  the  north,  a  length  of  about  102  degrees.  The  stars  in  the 
border,  which  are  marked  larger  than  the  rest,  are  those  pointed 
out  by  the  gauges ;  the  intermediate  parts  are  filled  up  by 
smaller  stars  arranged  in  straight  lines  between  the  gauged 
ones.  The  circle  described  around  S  represents  an  extent 
about  forty  times  the  distance  of  the  nearest  fixed  stars,  which 
may  be  considered  as  comprehending  all  those  which  are 
visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

uFrom  this  figure,”  says  Sir  W.  Herschel, w  we  may  see  that 
our  nebula  is  a  very  extensive  branching,  compound  congeries 
of  many  millions  of  stars ,  which  most  probably  owes  its 


herschel’s  remarks  on  the  MILKY  WAY-  M5 


origin  to  many  remarkably  large,  as  well  as  pretty  closely 
scattered  small  stars  that  may  have  drawn  together  the  rest.1-' 
Again — u  If  it  were  possible  to  distinguish  between  the  parts 
of  an  indefinitely  extended  whole,  the  nebula  we  inhabit 


Fig.  39. 


Vol.  VIII 


146  herschel’s  remarks  on  the  milky  way. 


might  be  said  to  be  one  that  has  fewer  marks  of  antiquity 
than  any  of  the  rest.  To  explain  this  idea  more  clearly,  we 
should  recollect  that  the  condensation  of  clusters  of  stars  has 
been  ascribed  to  a  gradual  approach ;  and  whoever  reflects  on 
the  number  of  ages  that  must  have  passed  before  some  of  the 
clusters  that  are  to  be  found  in  my  intended  catalogue  could 
be  so  far  condensed  as  we  find  them  at  present,  will  not  won¬ 
der  if  I  ascribe  a  certain  air  of  youth  and  vigour  to  very  many 
regularly  scattered  regions  of  our  sidereal  stratum.  There 
are,  moreover,  many  places  in  it  in  which,  if  we  may  judge 
from  some  appearances,  there  is  the  greatest  reason  to  believe 
that  the  stars  are  drawing  towards  secondary  centres,  and  will 
in  time  separate  into  clusters  so  as  to  occasion  many  subdi¬ 
visions.  Our  system,  after  numbers  of  ages,  may  very  possi¬ 
bly  become  divided  so  as  to  give  rise  to  a  stratum  of  two  or 
three  hundred  nebulae ;  for  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  point 
out  so  many  beginning  or  gathering  clusters  in  it.  This 
throws  considerable  light  upon  that  remarkable  collection  of 
many  hundreds  of  nebulae  which  are  to  be  seen  in  what  I 
have  called  the  nebulous  stratum  in  Coma  Berenices.  It  ap¬ 
pears  from  the  branching  and  extended  figure  of  our  nebulae, 
that  there  is  room  for  the  decomposed  small  nebulae  of  a  large 
reduced  former  great  one  to  approach  nearer  to  us  in  the  sides 
than  in  any  other  parts.”  *  •  •  •  u  Some  parts  of  our  system 
seem  indeed  already  to  have  sustained  greater  ravages  of  time 
than  others ;  for  instance,  in  the  body  of  the  Scorpion  is  an 
opening,  or  hole,  which  is  probably  owing  to  this  cause.  It 
is  at  least  four  degrees  broad,  but  its  height  I  have  not  yet 
ascertained.  Ij;  is  remarkable  that  the  80th  nebula  of  the 
Connoissance  des  Temps ,  which  is  one  of  the  richest  and  most 
compressed  clusters  of  small  stars  I  remember  to  have  seen, 
is  situated  just  on  the  west  border  of  it,  and  would  almost 
authorize  a  suspicion  that  the  stars  of  which  it  is  composed 
were  collected  from  that  place,  and  had  left  the  vacancy.” 

The  remarks  in  the  above  paragraph  I  present  to  the  reader 
merely  as  the  opinions  of  an  illustrious  astronomer  and  an  in¬ 
defatigable  observer  of  celestial  phenomena,  without  vouching 
for  the  accuracy  or  probability  of  such  speculations  and 
hypotheses.  To  determine  the  reality  of  such  changes  in 
bodies  so  numerous  and  so  distant,  would  require  an  indefinite 
lapse  of  ages;  yea,  perhaps  the  revolutions  of  eternity  are 
alone  sufficient  for  determining  the  sublime  movements  and 
changes  which  happen  among  the  immense  assemblages  of 
material  existence  which  constitute  the  universe.  There  is  a 
high  degree  of  probability  that  every  thing  within  the  material 


STARRY  GROUPS - PLEIADES. 


147 


system  is  liable  to  change  of  one  kind  or  another,  and  that 
there  is  no  sun  nor  world,  among  all  the  myriads  of  globes 
which  replenish  the  sidereal  heavens,  but  what  is  actually  in 
motion , — and  moving,  too,  with  a  velocity  which  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  such  a  world  as  ours  can  scarcely  appreciate ;  and 
such  motions,  in  the  course  of  ages,  may  be  productive  of  a 
vast  diversity  of  scenery  in  different  regions  of  the  universe. 
And  if  so,  it  presents  to  view  another  instance  of  that  variety 
which  the  Creator  has  introduced  into  his  universal  kingdom 
to  gratify  the  unbounded  desires  of  intelligent  beings. 

I  shall  conclude  this  chapter  with  the  following  description 
of  the  Milky  Way,  which  Sir  John  Herschel  has  published 
since  his  residence  in  the  southern  hemisphere : — u  The  gene¬ 
ral  aspect  of  the  southern  circumpolar  region — including  in 
that  expression  sixty  or  seventy  degrees  of  south-polar  dis¬ 
tance — is  in  a  high  degree  rich  and  magnificent,  owing  to  the 
superior  brilliancy  and  larger  development  of  the  Milky  Way, 
which  from  the  constellation  of  Orion  to  that  of  Antinous  is 
in  a  blaze  of  light,  strangely  interrupted,  however,  with  almost 
starless  patches,  especially  in  Scorpio,  near  a  Centauri,  and 
the  Cross ;  while  to  the  north  it  fades  away  pale  and  dim, 
and  is  in  comparison  hardly  traceable.  I  think  it  is  impossi¬ 
ble  to  view  this  splendid  zone,  with  the  astonishingly  rich 
and  evenly  distributed  fringe  of  stars  of  the  third  and  fourth 
magnitudes — which  form  a  broad  skirt  to  its  southern  border^ 
like  a  vast  curtain — without  an  impression  amounting  almost 
to  a  conviction,  that  the  Milky  Way  is  not  a  mere  stratum, 
but  an  annulus;  or  at  least  that  our  system  is  placed  within 
one  of  the  poorer  or  almost  vacant  parts  of  its  general  mass, 
and  that  eccentrically,  so  as  to  be  nearer  to  the  parts  about 
the  Cross  than  to  that  diametrically  opposed  to  it.” 


CHAPTER  XI. 

ON  GROUPS  AND  CLUSTERS  OF  STARS. 

On  a  cursory  view  of  the  heavens,  the  stars  appear  to  be 
very  irregularly  scattered  over  the  concave  of  the  firmament. 
In  some  places  a  considerable  interval  appears  between  neigh¬ 
bouring  stars,  while  in  others  they  appear  so  crowded  that 
the  eye  can  with  difficulty  perceive  the  spaces  between  them. 
Even  to  the  unassisted  eye,  there  are  certain  groups  of  this 


148 


STARRY  GROUPS - PLEIADES. 


description  which  strike  the  attention  of  every  observer,  and 
lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  stars  of  which  they  are  com¬ 
posed  have  been  brought  together  by  some  general  law,  and 
not  by  mere  casual  distribution.  Of  these,  the  group  called 
the  Pleiades ,  or  Seven  Stars,  is  the  most  obvious  to  common 
observers.  This  group  is  situated  in  the  constellation  Taurus, 
about  14°  to  the  westward  of  the  star  Aldebaran  ( see  Plate 
f.,)  .and  may  be  seen  every  clear  evening  from  the  end  of 
August  till  the  middle  of  April.*  It  is  generally  reckoned 
that  only  six  stars  can  be  distinctly  counted  in  this  group  by 
common  eyes,  but  that  originally  they  consisted  of  seven , 
which  every  one  could  easily  perceive,  and  it  has  therefore 
been  conjectured  that  one  of  them  has  long  since  disappeared. 
To  this  circumstance  Ovid,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  our 
Saviour,  alludes  in  these  lines  : — 

■“  Now  rise  the  Pleiades ,  those  nymphs  so  fair 

Once  seven  numbered,  now  but  six  there  are.”t 

In  fabulous  history  it  is  said  that  in  the  Pleiades  the  star 
Merope,  one  of  the  Atlantides,  appears  more  dim  and  obscure 
than  the  rest,  or  is  altogether  extinguished,  because,  as  the 
poets  fancy,  she  married  a  mortal,  while  her  sisters  married 
some  of  the  gods  or  their  descendants.  Dr.  Long,  however, 
declares  that  he  himself  had  more  than  once  seen  seven  stars 
in  this  group;  and  a  learned  astronomical  friend  assured  him 
that  he  had  seen  eight  stars  among  the  Pleiades,  where  com¬ 
mon  eyes  can  discover  but  six ;  and  Kepler  says  of  his  tutor 
Maestlinus,  that  u  he  could  reckon  fourteen  stars  in  the  Plei¬ 
ades  without  any  glasses.”  This  difference  in  the  number 
seen  by  different  persons  in  this  group  is  obviously  owing  to 
the  different  degrees  of  acuteness  of  vision  possessed  by  the 
respective  individuals.  However  small  the  number  perceived 
by  the  naked  eye,  the  telescope  shews  them  to  be  a  pretty 
numerous  assemblage.  Dr.  Hook,  formerly  professor  of  geo¬ 
metry  in  Gresham  College,  informs  us  that,  directing  his 
twelve-feet  telescope  (which  could  magnify  only  about  seventy 
times)  to  the  Pleiades,  he  did  in  that  small  compass  count 
seventy-eight  stars ;  and  making  use  of  longer  and  more  per¬ 
fect  telescopes,  he  discovered  a  great  many  more  of  different 
magnitudes. 

The  ingenious  Mr.  Mitchell,  more  than  fifty  years  ago, 
started  the  idea  of  the  stars  being  formed  into  groups  or  sys- 

*  A  telescopic  view  of  the  Pleiades  is  exhibited  in  the  Appendix. 

1  “  Quae  septem  dici,  sex  tamen  esse  soient.” 


STARRY  GROUPS - COMA  BERENICES.  l^fl 

terns  which  are  entirely  detached  from  one  another,  and  have 
no  immediate  connexion.  In  reference  to  the  Pleiades,  lie 
conducted  his  reasoning  as  follows  : — u  The  Pleiades  are 
composed  of  six  remarkable  stars,  which  are  placed  in  the 
midst  of  a  number  of  others  that  are  all  between  the  third 
and  sixth  magnitudes  ;  and  comparing  this  number  six  with 
the  whole  number  visible  in  the  heavens  to  the  naked  eye, 
he  calculated,  by  the  doctrine  of  chances,  that  among  all  this 
number,  if  they  had  been  dispersed  arbitrarily  through  the 
celestial  vault,  it  was  about  five  hundred  millions  to  one  that 
six  of  them  should  be  placed  together  in  so  small  a  space. 
It  is  therefore  so  many  chances  to  one  that  this  distribution 
was  the  result  of  design,  or  that  there  is  a  reason  or  cause  for 
such  an  assemblage.” 

The  constellation  called  Coma  Berenices  is  another  group, 
more  diffused  than  the  Pleiades,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
small  stars  which  can  scarcely  be  distinguished  in  the  pre¬ 
sence  of  the  moon.  This  beautiful  cluster  lies  about  five 
degrees  east  of  the  equinoctial  colure,  and  midway  between 
the  star  Cor  Caroli  on  the  north-east,  and  Denebola,  in  the 
Lion’s  tail,  on  the  south-west.  If  a  straight  line  be  drawn 
from  Benetnasclb — the  star  at  the  extremity  of  the  tail  of  the 
Great  Bear — through  Cor  Caroli,  and  produced  to  Denebola, 
it  will  pass  through  this  cluster.  It  may  also  be  distin¬ 
guished  as  situated  about  twenty-six  degrees  west  by  north 
from  the  bright  star  Jlrcturus.  The  confused  lustre  of  this 
assemblage  of  small  stars  bears  a  certain  resemblance  to  that 
of  the  Milky  Way,  and,  besides  the  stars  of  which  it  is 
chiefly  composed,  it  contains  a  number  of  nebulae.  Sir  W 
Herschel  supposes  that  the  stratum  of  nebulae  in  this  quarter 
runs  out  a  very  considerable  way,  and  that  it  may  even  make 
the  circuit  of  the  heavens,  though  not  in  one  of  the  great 
circles  of  the  sphere.  He  also  supposes  that  the  situation 
of  the  stratum  is  nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  great  sidereal 
stratum  in  which  the  sun  is  placed,  that  the  Coma  itself  is 
one  of  the  clusters  in  it,  and  that  it  is  on  account  of  its  near¬ 
ness  that  it  appears  to  be  so  scattered.  He  apprehends  that 
the  direction  of  it  towards  the  north  lies  probably,  witli  some 
windings,  through  the  Great  Bear  onwards  to  Cassiopeia, 
thence  through  the  girdle  of  Andromeda  and  the  Northern 
Fish,  proceeding  towards  Cetus ;  while  towards  the  south  it 
passes  through  the  Virgin,  probably  on  to  the  tail  of  Hydra 
and  Centaurus. 

Another  group,  somewhat  similar,  but  less  definite,  is  found 
in  the  constellation  of  Cancer;  it  is  called  Prcesepe ,  or  the 

13* 


150 


STARRY  GROUPS - PRJESEPE. 


Bee  Hive,  and  is  a  nebulous  cluster  of  very  minute  stars,  not 
separately  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye.  A  telescope  of 
very  moderate  power,  however,  easily  resolves  it  into  small 
stars.  It  is  sufficiently  luminous  to  be  seen  as  a  nebulous 
speck  by  the  unassisted  eye,  and  is  somewhat  like  the  nucleus 
of  a  comet,  for  which  it  has  frequently  been  mistaken  by 
ordinary  observers.  It  is  situated  in  a  triangular  position 
with  regard  to  Castor  and  Procyon,  or  the  Little  Dog.  A 
line  drawn  from  Procyon  in  a  north-easterly  direction  meets 
with  Preesepe  at  the  distance  of  twenty  degrees.  This  line, 
drawn  in  a  north-westerly  direction  from  Prsesepe,  meets 
Castor  at  the  same  distance.  These  lines  form  nearly  a  right 
angle,  the  angular  point  being  in  Praesepe.  It  may  otherwise 
be  discovered  by  means  of  two  stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude 
lying  one  on  either  side  of  it  at  the  distance  of  about  two 
degrees.  It  may  likewise  be  found  by  conceiving  a  line  drawn 
through  Castor  and  Pollux  to  the  south-east,  and  continued 
about  fifteen  degrees,  or  three  times  the  distance  between  Cas¬ 
tor  and  Pollux.  This  cluster,  Sir  W.  Herschel  thinks,  be¬ 
longs  to  a  certain  nebulous  stratum  so  placed  as  to  lie  nearest 
us.  This  stratum  runs  from  s  Cancri  towards  the  south,  over 
the  67th  nebula  of  the  Connoissance  des  Temps ,  which  is  a 
very  beautiful  and  much  compressed  cluster  of  stars,  easily 
to  be  seen  by  any  good  telescope,  and  in  which  he  has  ob¬ 
served  above  200  stars  at  once  in  the  field  of  view  of  his 
great  reflector,  with  a  power  of  157.  This  cluster  appearing 
so  plainly  with  any  good  common  telescope,  and  being  so 
near  to  the  one  which  may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye, 
denotes  it  to  be  probably  the  next  in  distance  to  that  within 
the  quartile  formed  by  y  8  vj  e.  From  the  67th  nebula,  the 
stratum  of  Cancer  proceeds  towards  the  head  of  Hydra. 

I  have  seldom  contemplated  a  more  brilliant  and  beautiful 
view  in  the  heavens  than  one  of  the  fields  of  view  of  this 
cluster  of  stars.  With  a  3^  feet  achromatic,  and  a  power  of 
95,  I  have  counted  from  fifty  to  seventy  stars.  Fifteen  or 
twenty  of  the  most  brilliant  of  these  presented  beautiful  con¬ 
figurations  :  one  of  them  was  an  equilateral  triangle ;  another, 
an  isoscelus  \  a  third,  nearly  of  the  figure  of  a  cone  ;  a  fourth, 
parallel  lines,  Sic.  In  more  than  two  instances,  three  brilliant 
equi-distant  stars  appeared  in  a  straight  line,  similar  to  the  belt 
of  Orion,  while  a  considerable  number  of  the  remaining  stars 
appeared  extremely  small.  With  a  6^  feet  achromatic,  whose 
object  glass  is  4  inches  diameter,  and  a  power  of  110,  this 
view  was  rendered  still  more  brilliant.  Several  fields  of  view, 
nearly  of  this  description,  may  be  perceived  in  this  cluster 


GROUPS  OF  STARS. 


151 


Fig.  40  represents  one  of  these  views,  in  which  some  of  the 
smaller  stars  are  omitted.  This  view  was  taken  with  the  3£ 

Fig.  40. 


feet  telescope,  having  an  erect  eye-piece.  The  configurations 
appear  somewhat  different  in  their  relations  to  each  other 
when  viewed  with  an  inverting  eye-piece. 

Another  cluster  is  found  in  the  sword-handle  of  Perseus , 
which  is  crowded  with  stars  of  a  smaller  size  than  in  the 
clusters  already  noticed,  and  which  requires  a  telescope  of 
greater  power  to  resolve  them  and  shew  them  separated  from 
each  other.  Perseus  is  one  of  the  northern  circumpolar  con¬ 
stellations,  nearly  opposite  to  the  three  stars  in  the  tail  of  the 
Great  Bear.  A  line  drawn  from  these  stars  through  the  Pole- 
star  meets  the  sword  and  head  of  Perseus  at  nearly  an  equal 
distance  on  the  opposite  side.  Jt  is  directly  north  of  the 
Pleiades,  between  Andromeda  and  Auriga.  The  sword  is  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Cassiopeia.  A  line  drawn  from  Alge- 
nib ,  the  brightest  star  in  this  constellation,  to  the  middle  of 
Cassiopeia,  passes  through  the  sword-handle  where  the  clus- 


GROUPS  OF  STARS. 


102 

ter  is  situated,  which  is  about  midway  between  these  two  ob¬ 
jects. 

If  the  lowermost  of  the  three  small  stars  which  form  the 
sword  of  Orion  be  viewed  with  a  good  telescope,  a  beautiful 
configuration  of  stars  will  be  perceived.  Fig.  41*  represents 
the  principal  stars  comprehended  in  one  field  of  view  at  this 
point,  as  taken  with  a  six  feet  and  a  half  telescope,  with  an 
inverting  eye-piece,  magnifying  110  times;  it  exhibits  a  dis¬ 
tant  resemblance  of  the  whole  constellation  of  Orion  as  seen 
by  the  naked  eye.  But  in  the  neighbourhood  of  certain  parts 
of  the  Milky  Way,  particularly  about  the  regions  in  the  vici¬ 
nity  of  the  star  Jilt  air  and  in  the  constellation  Cassiopeia, 
the  stars,  though  smaller,  are  much  more  numerous.  With  a 
very  moderate  power  on  the  above  mentioned  telescope,  I 
have  had  fields  of  view  of  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  stars, 
some  of  them  beautifully  arranged,  and  such  fields  continued 
over  a  space  of  several  degrees. 

The  above  may  be  considered  as  specimens  of  groups  of 
stars,  which  every  one  possessed  of  telescopes  may  easily  ex¬ 
amine  for  himself.  They  form  very  beautiful  objects  for 


Fig.  41  * 


CLUSTERS  OF  STARS. 


153 


hibiting  to  young  people  and  to  amateurs  in  astronomy;  and 
it  cannot  but  strike  the  mind  with  wonder  and  admiration  to 
behold,  in  one  point  of  view,  within  a  space  little  more  than 
that  of  the  one-fifth  of  the  apparent  size  of  the  moon,  nearly 
a  hundred  resplendent  suns  emitting  their  effulgence  from  re¬ 
gions  immeasurably  distant,  and  arranged  in  beautiful  sym¬ 
metry  and  order — a  scene  of  creating  power  surpassing  in 
grandeur  ten  thousand  worlds  such  as  ours,  and  in  which  our 
whole  planetary  system  would  appear  only  as  the  smallest 
twinkling  star.  Such  telescopic  views  of  the  nocturnal  hea¬ 
vens  have  a  tendency  to  expand  the  capacity  of  the  soul,  to 
inspire  it  with  magnificent  conceptions,  and  to  raise  its  affec¬ 
tions  above  the  low  ambition  and  paltry  concerns  of  this 
transitory  scene  to  the  distant  and  more  magnificent  scenes 
of  the  Divine  empire.  To  the  devout  and  contemplative 
philosopher  the  following  lines  of  the  poet  may  be  applied : — - 

“Not  to  this  evanescent  speck  of  earth 
Poorly  confined — the  radiant  tracks  on  high 
Are  his  exalted  range ;  intent  to  gaze 
Creation  through,  and  from  that  full  complex 
Of  never-ending  wonders  to  conceive 
Of  the  sole  Being  right,  who  spoke  the  word, 

And  nature  moved  complete.”- — Thomson’s  Summer. 

Sir  W.  Herschel  makes  a  distinction  between  groups  and 
clusters  of  stars.  A  group  is  a  collection  of  stars  closely  and 
almost  equally  compressed,  and  of  any  figure  or  outline. 
There  is  no  particular  condensation  of  the  stars  to  indicate 
the  existence  of  a  central  force,  and  the  groups  are  sufficiently 
separated  from  neighbouring  stars  to  shew  that  they  form  pe¬ 
culiar  systems  of  their  own.  According  to  this  definition,  the 
congeries  of  stars  I  have  pointed  out  above  are  to  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  class  of  groups.  Clusters  of  stars  differ 
from  groups  in  their  beautiful  and  artificial  arrangement.  Their 
form  is  generally  round,  and  their  condensation  is  such  as  to 
produce  a  mottled  lustre  somewhat  resembling  a  nucleus. 
The  whole  appearance  of  a  cluster  indicates  the  existence  of  a 
central  force,  residing  either  in  a  central  body  or  in  the  centre 
of  gravity  of  the  whole  system.  The  stars  of  which  it  is 
composed  appear  more  and  more  accumulated  towards  the 
centre. 

Many  such  clusters  are  found  in  the  heavens  invisible  to 
the  naked  eye,  and  whose  existence  as  dim  specks  of  light 
can  only  be  recognized  by  the  assistance  of  optical  instru¬ 
ments.  Telescopes  of  moderate  power  exhibit  them  only  as 
small  round  ir  oval  specks,  somewhat  resembling  comets 


154 


IMMENSITY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 


without  tails ;  but  when  these  objects  are  examined  with 
telescopes  of  great  power,  “they  are  then,”  as  Sir  John  Her- 
schel  remarks,  “  for  the  most  part,  perceived  to  consist  entirely 
of  stars  crowded  together  so  as  to  occupy  almost  a  definite 
outline,  and  to  run  up  to  a  blaze  of  light  in  the  centre,  where 
their  condensation  is  usually  the  greatest.”  “  Many  of  them, 
indeed,  are  of  an  exactly  round  figure,  and  convey  the  com¬ 
plete  idea  of  a  globular  space  filled  full  of  stars,  insulated  in 
the  heavens,  and  constituting  in  itself  a  family  or  society  apart 
from  the  rest,  and  subject  to  its  own  internal  laws.  It  would 
be  a  vain  task  to  attempt  to  count  the  stars  in  one  of  these 
globular  clusters.  They  are  not  to  be  reckoned  by  hundreds; 
and  on  a  rough  calculation,  grounded  on  the  apparent  intervals 
between  them  at  the  borders  (where  they  are  seen  not  pro¬ 
jected  on  each  other)  and  the  angular  diameter  of  the  whole 
group,  it  would  appear  that  many  clusters  of  this  description 
must  contain  at  least  ten  or  twenty  thousand  stars,  compacted 
and  wedged  together  in  a  round  space,  whose  angular  diame¬ 
ter  does  not  exceed  eight  or  ten  minutes — that  is  to  say,  in  an 
area  not  more  than  a  tenth  part  of  that  covered  by  the  moon.” 
The  stars  composing  such  clusters  appear  to  form  a  system 
of  a  peculiar  and  definite  character.  “  Their  round  figure 
clearly  indicates  the  existence  of  some  general  bond  of  union 
in  the  nature  of  an  attractive  force,  and  in  many  of  them  there 
is  an  evident  acceleration  in  the  rate  of  condensation  as  we 
approach  the  centre,  which  is  not  referable  to  a  merely  uni¬ 
form  distribution  of  equidistant  stars  through  a  globular  space, 
but  marks  an  intrinsic  density  in  their  state  of  aggregation, 
greater  at  the  centre  than  at  the  surface  of  the  mass.” 

Let  the  reader  pause  for  a  moment  on  the  object  now  de¬ 
scribed,  and  consider  the  glimpse  it  affords  us  of  the  immensity 
of  the  universe,  and  of  the  innumerable  globes  of  light  with 
which  it  is  replenished.  A  point  in  the  firmament,  scarcely 
perceptible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  which  a  common  telescope 
shews  only  as  a  small  dim  round  speck,  yet  is  found  by 
powerful  instruments  to  consist  entirely  of  stars  to  the  number 
of  ten  or  twenty  thousand  !  At  what  a  distance  must  such  a 
cluster  be  when  its  stars  appear  to  be  blended  and  projected 
one  upon  another,  hundreds  of  them  appearing  only  like  a 
lucid  point!  and  yet  the  distance  between  any  two  of  them  is 
perhaps  ten  thousand  times  greater  than  that  of  Saturn  from 
our  globe.  From  such  a  region  even  light  itself  must  take 
many  thousands  of  years  ere  it  can  reach  our  world.  In  this 
almost  invisible  point,  which  not  one  out  of  fifty  thousand,  or 
even  one  out  of  a  million  of  earth’s  inhabitants  has  yet  per- 


IMMENSITY  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 


155 


ceived,  what  a  scene  of  grandeur  and  beneficence  may  be  dis¬ 
played  ;  and  what  a  confluence  of  suns,  and  systems,  and 
worlds  and  intelligences  of  various  orders,  may  exist,  display¬ 
ing  the  power  and  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  great  Father 
of  all !  Every  circumstance  connected  with  such  an  object 
shows  that  its  distance  must  be  immeasurably  great,  and  con¬ 
sequently  the  luminaries  of  which  it  is  composed  immense  in 
magnitude.  But  suns  of  such  size  and  splendour  cannot  be 
supposed  to  be  thrown  together  at  random  through  the  regions 
of  infinity,  without  any  ultimate  design  worthy  of  the  Creator, 
or  without  relation  to  the  enjoyments  of  intelligent  existence; 
and  therefore  we  may  reasonably  conclude  that  ten  thousand 
times  ten  thousands,  and  myriads  of  myriads  of  exalted  intel¬ 
ligences  exist  in  that  far  distant  region,  compared  with  the 
number  of  which  all  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe  are  but  “  as 
the  drop  of  a  bucket,  or  as  the  small  dust  of  the  balance.” 

In  short,  in  this  dim  and  almost  imperceptible  speck  we 
have  concentrated  a  confluence  of  suns  and  worlds,  at  least 
ten  times  surpassing  in  size  and  splendour  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  and  all  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye  throughout 
all  the  spaces  of  our  firmament !  What  then  must  be  the 
number  and  magnitude  of  all  the  other  clusters  which  the 
telescope  has  brought  to  view  ?  what  the  number  of  those 
which  lie  beyond  the  limits  of  human  vision  in  the  unex- 
plorable  regions  of  immensity  ?  and  what  must  the  universe 
itself  be,  of  which  all  those  numerous  starry  systems  are  but 
an  inconsiderable  part  ?  Here  the  human  faculties  are  com¬ 
pletely  lost  amidst  the  immensity  of  matter,  magnitude,  motion, 
and  intelligent  existence,  and  we  can  only  exclaim,  “Great 
and  marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty  !” 

Figure  41  represents  a  view  of  one  of  the  clusters  alluded  to 
above,  as  seen  in  the  twenty-feet  reflector  at  Slough.  Sir  J.Her- 
schel,  who  has  given  a  delineation  of  it  in  his  “Treatise  on  As¬ 
tronomy,”  says  “  it  represents,  somewhat  rudely,  the  thirteenth 
nebula  of  Messeir’s  list,  described  by  him  as  nebuleuse  sans 
etoiles .”  Its  right  ascension  is  16h  36';  and  its  north  declina¬ 
tion,  36°  46' ;  by  which  its  place  may  easily  be  found  on  a  celes¬ 
tial  globe.  It  is  situated  in  the  constellation  Hercules,  between 
the  stars  ^  and  £.  These  stars  are  of  the  third  magnitude,  and 
lie  north  and  south  of  each  other,  at  the  distance  of  seven  de¬ 
grees  and  a  third ;  they  come  to  the  meridian  about  the  middle 
of  July,  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening,  but  of  course  may  be 
seen  at  many  other  periods  of  the  year,  particularly  in  the  spring 
and  autumn.  The  star  rj  lies  about  twenty-two  degrees  nearly 
due  west  from  the  bright  star  Vega  or  »  Lyra?.  In  the  map 


156 


VIEWS  OF  CLUSTERS  OF  STARS. 


of  the  stars  on  Plate  II.  it  is  marked  with  the  letter  a,  and  the 
star  £  below  it  with  the  letter  b.  The  cluster  is  somewhat 
nearer  to  %  or  the  upper  star,  than  to  the  other.  It  is  just 
perceptible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  with  a  telescope  of  small 
power,  such  as  a  common  u  night  and  day  telescope,”  it  ap¬ 
pears  like  a  small  round  comet. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  places  of  six  of  the  principal 
clusters  of  this  description,  which  may  be  considered  as  speci¬ 
mens  of  these  remarkable  objects  : — 

1.  Right  ascension,  15h  10' ;  north  declination  2°  44/. 
This  cluster  lies  about  eight  degrees  south-west  from  Unuk , 
the  principal  star  in  the  Serpent,  and  comes  to  the  meridian, 
about  the  middle  of  June,  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening. 

2.  Right  ascension,  13h  34' ;  north  declination,  39°  15' ; 
between  the  tail  of  Chara  and  the  thigh  of  Bootes,  about  twelve 
degrees  north-west  of  Arcturus,  nearly  on  a  line  between  that 
star  and  Cor  Caroli ,  but  nearer  Arcturus. 

3.  Right  ascension,  13h>  5' ;  north  declination,  19°  5' ;  in 
Coma  Berenices,  fourteen  degrees  west  by  south  of  Arcturus. 
A  line  drawn  from  Arcturus  through  rj  Bootes  meets  this  clus¬ 
ter  at  somewhat  more  than  double  the  distance  of  these  two 
stars. 

4.  Right  ascension,  17h  29' ;  south  declination,  3°  8' ;  be¬ 
tween  the  stars  y  and  p  of  Serpentarius,  but  nearer  to  the 
latter. 

5.  Right  ascension,  21h  25';  south  declination,  1°  34';  in 
Aquarius,  about  five  degrees  north  of  rj  in  the  west  shoulder 
nearly  in  a  line  with  £  Fegasi  or  Enif. 

6.  Right  ascension,  21h  22';  north  declination,  11°  26'. 
This  cluster  lies  north  from  N o.  5,  at  the  distance  of  thirteen 
degrees,  and  about  three  or  four  degrees  north-west  of  the 
star  Enif,  or  e  Pegasi. 

Such  are  a  few  specimens  of  compressed  clusters  of  stars. 
Sir  W.  Herschel  has  given  a  catalogue  of  more  than  a  hundred 
of  such  clusters  dispersed  over  different  parts  of  the  heavens, 
many  of  which  require  powerful  telescopes  to  resolve  them 
into  stars.  These  clusters  may  be  considered  as  so  many 
distinct  firmaments ,  distributed  throughout  the  spaces  of  im¬ 
mensity,  each  of  them  comprising  within  itself  an  assemblage 
of  stars  far  more  numerous  than  what  appears  to  the  vulgar 
eye  throughout  the  whole  face  of  our  nocturnal  sky.  To 
those  intelligences  that  reside  near  the  centre  of  such  clusters, 
the  stars  connected  with  their  own  cluster  or  system  will  be 
those  which  they  will  chiefly  behold  in  their  sky;  and  in 
those  clusters  which  are  of  a  globular  form,  the  stars  will  ap- 


BOUNDLESS  EXTENT  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  157 

pear  nearly  equally  dispersed  over  the  face  of  their  firmament. 
In  those  starry  assemblages  which  shew  a  great  compression 
about  the  centre,  an  immense  number  of  stars  of  the  first  mag¬ 
nitude  will  decorate  their  sky,  and  render  it  far  more  resplen¬ 
dent  than  that  with  which  we  are  surrounded — another  in¬ 
stance  of  that  variety  which  distinguishes  all  the  scenes  of 
creation.  Scarcely  any  other  star  will  be  visible  except  those 
which  belong  to  their  own  system.  If  the  magnificent  sys¬ 
tem  of  stars  with  which  our  sun  is  connected  be  at  all  visible, 
it  will  only  appear  like  a  dim  and  inconsiderable  speck  in  the 
remote  regions  of  immensity,  or  as  a  small  cluster  or  nebula, 
such  as  those  we  perceive  with  difficulty  through  our  tele¬ 
scopes.  Such  are  the  grand,  the  diversified,  and  wonderful 
plans  of  the  Creator  throughout  his  vast  and  boundless  universe. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

ON  THE  DIFFERENT  ORDERS  OF  THE  NEBULiE. 


Section  I. — General  Remarks  on  the  Subject  of  Nebulae. 

The  further  we  proceed  in  our  researches  into  the  sidereal 
heavens,  the  scene  of  Creating  Power  and  Wisdom  becomes 
more  expansive  and  magnificent.  At  every  step  of  our  pro¬ 
gress  the  prospect  enlarges  far  beyond  what  we  had  previous¬ 
ly  conceived  ;  the  multitude  and  variety  of  its  objects  are 
indefinitely  increased ;  new  suns  and  new  firmaments  open  to 
view  on  every  hand,  overwhelming  the  mind  with  astonish¬ 
ment  and  wonder  at  the  immensity  of  Creation,  and  leaving 
it  no  room  to  doubt  that,  after  all  its  excursions,  it  has  arrived 
only  at  u  the  frontiers  of  the  Great  Jehovah’s  kingdom.” 
Wrherever  we  turn  our  eyes  amidst  those  higher  regions,  infi¬ 
nity  appears  to  stretch  before  us  on  either  hand,  and  countless 
assemblages  of  the  most  resplendent  objects  are  everywhere 
found  diversifying  the  tracts  of  immensity.  To  investigate 
such  objects  in  relation  to  their  number,  magnitude,  motion, 
and  the  laws  by  which  they  are  united  and  directed  in  their 
movements,  completely  baffles  the  mathematician’s  skill,  and 
aets  all  his  hitherto  acquired  powers  of  analysis  at  defiance, 
and  demonstrates  that  we  are  still  in  the  infancy  of  know- 
Vol.  VIII.  14 


158 


THE  NEBULAE. 


ledge  and  of  being.  Here,  all  finite  measures  fail  us  in  at¬ 
tempting  to  scan  such  amazing  objects,  and  to  penetrate  into 
such  unfathomable  recesses ;  length,  breadth,  depth,  and 
height,  and  time  and  space,  are  lost.  We  are  justly  filled 
with  admiration  at  the  amazing  grandeur  of  the  Milky  Way, 
where  suns  and  worlds  are  counted  by  millions.  When 
exploring  its  dimensions  and  sounding  its  profundities,  we 
seem  to  have  got  a  view  of  a  universe  far  more  expansive 
than  what  we  had  previously  conceived  to  be  the  extent  of 
the  whole  creation.  But  what  shall  we  say  if  this  vast  as¬ 
semblage  of  starry  systems  be  found  to  be  no  more  than  a 
single  nebula ,  of  which  several  thousands,  perhaps  even  richer 
in  stars,  have  already  been  discovered !  and  that  it  bears  no 
more  proportion  to  the  whole  of  the  sidereal  heavens  around 
us,  then  a  small  dusky  speck  which  our  telescopes  enable  us 
to  descry  !  Y et  such  is  the  conclusion  which  we  are  led  to 
deduce  from  the  discoveries  which  have  been  lately  made  re¬ 
specting  the  different  orders  of  the  nebulae,  of  which  I  shall 
now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  description. 

The  word  nebula  literally  signifies  a  cloud ,  or  mist.  This 
name  is  now  used  in  astronomy  to  denote  certain  small  spots, 
resembling  whitish  clouds,  which  are  seen  in  the  starry 
heavens  by  the  telescope,  and  which  present  different  kinds  of 
appearances,  either  that  of  single  stars  enveloped  in  a  nebu¬ 
lous  veil,  or  of  groups  of  small  stars,  or  only  the  appearance 
of  a  shining  or  glittering  cloud,  which  last  are  the  nebulae 
properly  so  called.  The  following  are  some  general  observa¬ 
tions  on  the  Nebulae  by  Sir  William  Herschel.  The  success 
which  accompanied  the  observations  of  this  eminent  astrono¬ 
mer  in  reference  to  the  Milky  Way,  induced  him  to  turn  his 
telescope  to  the  nebulous  parts  of  the  heavens,  of  which  an 
accurate  list  had  been  published  in  the  Connoissance  des 
Temps *  for  1783  and  1784.  Most  of  these  yielded  to  a 
Newtonian  reflector  of  20  feet  focal  distance,  and  12  inches 
aperture,  which  plainly  discovered  them  to  be  composed  of 
stars,  or  at  least  to  contain  stars,  and  to  shew  every  other 
indication  of  their  consisting  of  them  entirely. 

u  The  nebulae,”  says  he,  u  are  arranged  into  strata,  and  run 

*  Connoissance  des  Temps ,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  written,  Connaissance 
des  Terns ,  literally  signifies  the  knowledge  of  time.  It  is  the  title  of  an 
Almanack,  or  astronomical  ephemeris,  published  at  Paris,  on  nearly  the 
same  plan  as  the  “  Nautical  Almanack,”  published  at  London.  The 
following  is  tne  title  of  one  published  in  the  year  1825  : — “  Connaissance 
des  Terns,  ou  des  Mouvemens  Celestes,  a  1’ Usage  des  Astronomes  et 
des  Navigateurs,  pour  l’an  1828.  Publiee  parle  Bureau  des  Longitudes.” 
It  contains  216  pages. 


THE  NEBULA. 


15.9 


on  to  a  great  length  ;  and  some  of  them  I  have  been  able  to 
pursue,  and  to  guess  pretty  well  at  their  form  and  direction. 
It  is  probable  enough  that  they  may  surround  the  whole 
starry  sphere  of  the  heavens,  not  unlike  the  Milky  Way, 
which  undoubtedly  is  nothing  but  a  stratum  of  fixed  stars. 
And  as  this  latter  immense  starry  bed  is  not  of  equal  breadth 
or  lustre  in  every  part,  nor  runs  on  in  one  straight  direction, 
but  is  curved  and  even  divided  into  two  streams  along  a 
very  considerable  portion  of  it,  we  may  likewise  expect  the 
greatest  variety  in  the  strata  of  the  clusters  of  stars  and 
nebula.  One  of  these  nebulous  beds  is  so  rich,  that  in  pass¬ 
ing  through  a  section  of  it,  in  the  time  of  only  thirty-six 
minutes,  1  have  detected  no  less  than  thirty-one  nebulae  all 
distinctly  visible  upon  a  fine  blue  sky.  Their  situation  and 
shape,  as  well  as  condition,  seem  to  denote  the  greatest 
variety  imaginable.  In  another  stratum,  or  perhaps  a  different 
branch  of  the  former,  I  have  seen  double  and  treble  nebulae 
variously  arranged ;  large  ones  with  small,  seeming  atten¬ 
dants  ;  narrow,  but  much  extended  lucid  nebulae  or  bright 
dashes ;  some  of  the  shape  of  a  fan,  resembling  an  electric 
brush  issuing  from  a  lucid  point;  others  of  the  cometic 
shape,  with  a  seeming  nucleus  in  the  centre,  or  like  cloudy 
stars  surrounded  with  a  nebulous  atmosphere.  A  different 
sort  again  contain  a  nebulosity  of  the  milky  kind,  like  that 
wonderful  inexplicable  phenomenon  about  0  Grionis ;  while 
others  shine  with  a  fainter  mottled  kind  of  light,  which 
denotes  their  being  resolvable  into  stars.” 

44  In  my  late  observations  on  nebulae,”  says  Sir  William  on 
another  occasion,  44  I  have  found  that  I  generally  detected 
them  in  certain  directions  rather  than  in  others ;  that  the 
spaces  preceding  them  were  generally  quite  deprived  of  their 
stars,  so  as  often  to  afford  many  fields  without  a  single  star 
in  it ;  that  the  nebulae  generally  appeared  sometime  after 
among  stars  of  a  certain  considerable  size,  and  but  seldom 
among  very  small  stars ;  and  when  I  came  to  one  nebulae,  I 
generally  found  several  more  in  the  neighbourhood ;  that 
afterwards  a  considerable  time  passed  before  I  came  to  another 
parcel.  These  events  being  often  repeated  in  different  alti¬ 
tudes  of  my  instrument,  and  some  of  them  at  considerable 
distances  from  each  other,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the  inter¬ 
mediate  spaces  between  the  sweeps  might  also  contain  nebulae; 
and  finding  this  to  hold  good  more  than  once,  I  ventured  to 
give  notice  to  my  assistant  at  the  clock  that 4 1  found  myself 
on  nebulous  ground.’  ”  From  these  observations  of  Herschel, 
it  appears  that  the  nebulae  are  not  dispersed  indiscriminately 


160 


Lambert’s  view  of  the  universe; 


through  the  heavens,  but  are  found  in  certain  regions  and 
directions  rather  than  in  others,  and  that,  as  formerly  stated, 
they  probably  make  the  circuit  of  the  heavens,  intersecting  at 
a  certain  angle  the  Milky  Way. 

More  than  eighty  years  ago,  it  was  suggested  by  the  cele¬ 
brated  mathematician  and  astronomer,  M.  Lambert,  in  his 
“  Letters  on  Cosmogony,”  that  all  the  stars  in  the  universe 
are  collected  into  systems ;  that  all  these  systems  are  in  mo¬ 
tion  ;  that  the  individual  stars  or  suns  of  each  system  move 
round  a  common  centre  of  gravity,  which  may  possibly  be  a 
large  opaque  globe  *  and  that  all  the  systems  of  the  universe, 
as  one  related  system,  revolve  around  some  grand  centre, 
common  to  the  whole.  w  All  those  systems  of  worlds,”  says 
this  astronomer,  “  resemble,  though  on  a  small  scale,  the  solar 
system,  inasmuch  as  in  each  the  stars  of  which  it  is  composed 
revolve  round  a  common  centre,  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
planets  and  comets  revolve  round  the  sun.  It  is  even  pro¬ 
bable  that  several  individual  systems  concur  in  forming  more 
general  systems,  and  so  on.  Such,  for  example,  as  are  com¬ 
prehended  in  the  Milky  Way,  will  make  component  parts  of 
a  more  enlarged  system;  and  this  way  will  belong  to  other 
milky  ways,  with  which  it  will  constitute  a  whole.  If  these 
last  are  invisible  to  us,  it  is  by  reason  of  their  immense 
distance.  It  would  not  be  at  all  astonishing,  if  milky  ways, 
situated  still  further  from  us  in  the  depth  of  the  heavens, 
should  make  no  impression  on  the  eye  whatever.”  Again — 
“  The  sum  of  the  milky  ways  taken  together  have  their  com¬ 
mon  centre  of  revolution ;  but  how  far  soever  we  may  thus 
extend  the  scale  we  must  necessarily  stop  at  last ;  and  where  ? 
At  the  centre  of  centres,  at  the  centre  of  creation,  which  1 
should  be  inclined  to  term  the  capital  of  the  universe,  inas¬ 
much  as  thence  originates  motion  of  every  kind,  and  there 
stands  the  great  wheel  in  which  all  the  rest  have  their  inden¬ 
tation.  From  thence  the  laws  are  issued  which  govern  and 
uphold  the  universe,  or,  rather,  there  they  resolve  themselves 
into  one  law  of  all  others  the  most  simple.  But  who  would 
be  competent  to  measure  the  space  and  time  which  all  the 
globes,  all  the  worlds,  all  the  worlds  of  worlds,  employ  in 
revolving  round  that  immense  body — the  Throne  of  Nature 
and  the  Footstool  of  the  Divinity  !  What  painter,  what  poet, 
what  imagination  is  sufficiently  exalted  to  describe  the  beauty, 
the  magnificence,  the  grandeur  of  this  source  of  all  that  is 
beautiful,  great,  magnificent,  and  from  which  order  and  har¬ 
mony  flow  in  eternal  streams  through  the  whole  bounds  of 
the  universe !” 


NUMBER  OF  THE  NEBULiE. 


16  L 


The'  discoveries  made  by  Sir  W.  Herschel  in  reference  to 
the  nebulae  have  in  part  realized  some  of  the  views  suggested 
by  Lambert  in  regard  to  the  general  arrangements  of  the  sys¬ 
tems  of  the  universe.  They  afford  convincing  evidence  that 
the  stars  are  not  dispersed  as  it  were  at  random,  in  a  kind  of 
magnificent  confusion,  but  are  distributed  systematically,  in 
immense  clusters,  throughout  the  regions  of  boundless  space. 

There  are  various  forms  and  classes  of  nebulae  which  we 
shall  notice  in  the  sequel,  but  they  may  all  be  reduced  to  two 
great  classes, — the  resolvable  and  irresolvable  ;  that  is,  those 
which  may  be  resolved  into  clusters  of  stars  by  powerful 
telescopes,  and  those  which  no  telescope  hitherto  constructed 
has  yet  been  able  to  resolve  into  starry  groups. 

Prior  to  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  observations  on  the  nebulae, 
about  a  hundred  of  these  objects  had  been  descried  in  dif¬ 
ferent  parts  of  the  heavens,  of  which  an  account  had  been 
given  by  Messier,  as  formerly  stated.  About  2000  more  were 
afterwards  discovered  by  the  unwearied  exertions  of  our 
British  astronomer,  a  description  of  which  was  inserted  at 
different  periods  in  the  Philosophical  Transactions.  The 
places  of  these  were  afterwards  computed  from  his  observa¬ 
tions,  and  arranged  into  a  catalogue,  in  the  order  of  right 
ascension,  by  his  sister,  Miss  Caroline  Herschel,  a  lady  singu¬ 
larly  eminent  for  her  astronomical  knowledge,  who  assisted 
him  in  all  his  sidereal  labours  and  discoveries,  and  was  her¬ 
self  a  discoverer  of  several  interesting  celestial  phenomena, 
particularly  comets.  Her  illustrious  nephew,  Sir  John  Her¬ 
schel,  read  a  paper  before  the  Royal  Society  in  November, 
1833,  in  which  he  gives  the  places  of  2500  nebulae,  or  clus¬ 
ters  of  stars,  of  which  500  were  detected  by  his  own  obser¬ 
vations,  the  rest  having  been  accurately  determined  by  his 
father.  Besides  these,  more  than  500  nebulae  have  been  dis¬ 
covered  in  the  southern  hemisphere  of  the  heavens,  of  which 
the  Magellanic  clouds  are  the  most  conspicuous  and  the  most 
remarkable.  They  are  three  in  number,  two  of  them  being 
near  each  other ;  the  largest  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
the  south  pole,  but  the  other  two  are  only  eleven  degrees 
distant.  To  the  naked  eye,  they  appear  like  portions  of  the 
Milky  Way. 

These  nebulae  have  great  variety  of  forms :  some  are  com¬ 
paratively  bright,  and  others  so  obscure  as  to  render  it  diffi¬ 
cult  to  detect  them  in  the  field  of  the  telescope,  or  to  ascer¬ 
tain  their  shape.  Some  of  them  appear  round,  some  oval,  and 
others  of  a  long  elliptic  shape ;  some  exhibit  an  annular  form, 
like  luminous  rings,  and  others  like  an  ellipses  with  a  dark 

14* 


162  HERSCHEL’s  DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  NEBUL2E. 


space  in  the  centre ;  but  the  greater  number  approximate  to  a 
roundish  form.  Of  the  103  nebulae  inserted  in  Messier’s  list, 
eighteen  were  known  at  the  time  to  consist  of  small  stars; 
but  Sir  W.  Herschel  afterwards  found  twenty-six  more  of  them 
to  consist  purely  of  clusters  of  stars,  eighteen  of  small  stars 
accompanied  with  nebulosity,  and  the  remainder  not  resolvable 
mto  stars  by  the  highest  powers  of  his  telescopes.  It  is  evi¬ 
dent  that  these  objects,  however  apparently  small  and  ob¬ 
scure,  must  be  bodies  of  immense  magnitude ,  when  we  take 
into  consideration  the  vast  distance  at  which  they  must  be 
placed  from  our  globe.  The  following  are  Sir  W.  Herschel’s 
views  on  this  point : — - 

u  My  opinion  of  their  size  is  grounded  on  the  following  ob¬ 
servations  There  are  many  round  nebulas  of  about  five  or  six 
minutes  in  diameter,  the  stars  of  which  I  can  see  very  dis¬ 
tinctly ;  and  on  comparing  them  with  the  visual  ray  calcu¬ 
lated  from  some  of  my  long  gauges,  I  suppose,  by  the  ap¬ 
pearance  of  the  small  stars  in  those  gauges,  that  the  centres  of 
these  round  nebulae  maybe  60.0  times  the  distance  of  Sirius  from 
us.”  He  then  goes  on  to  shew  that  the  stars  in  such  nebulae 
are  probably  twice  as  much  condensed  as  those  of  our  sys¬ 
tem,  otherwise  the  centre  of  it  would  not  be  less  than  6000 
times  the  distance  of  Sirius,  and  that  it  is  possibly  much  un¬ 
derrated  by  supposing  it  only  600  times  the  distance  of  that 
star.  w  Some  of  these  round  nebulae  have  others  near  them, 
perfectly  similar  in  form,  colour,  and  the  distribution  of  stars, 
but  of  only  half  the  diameter ;  and  the  stars  in  them  seem  to 
be  doubly  crowded,  and  only  at  about  half  the  distance  from 
each  other.  They  are  indeed  so  small  as  not  to  be  visible 
without  the  utmost  attention.  I  suppose  these  miniature  ne¬ 
bulae  to  be  at  double  the  distance  from  the  first.  An  instance 
equally  remarkable  and  instructive  is  a  case  where,  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  two  such  nebulae  as  have  been  mentioned, 
I  met  with  a  third  similar,  resolvable,  but  much  smaller  and 
fainter  nebula.  The  stars  of  it  are  no  longer  to  be  perceived ; 
but  a  resemblance  of  colour  with  the  former  two,  and  its 
diminished  size  and  light,  may  well  permit  us  to  place  it  at 
full  twice  the  distance  of  the  second,  or  about  four  or  five 
times  the  distance  of  the  first ;  and  yet  the  nebulosity  is  not 
of  the  milky  kind,  nor  is  it  so  much  as  difficultly  resolvable 
or  colourless.  Now  in  a  few  of  the  extended  nebulae,  the 
light  changes  gradually,  so  as  from  the  resolvable  to  approach 
to  the  milky  kind  ;  which  appears  to  me  an  indication  that  the 
milky  light  of  nebulae  is  owing  to  their  much  greater  distance. 
A  nebula,  therefore,  whose  light  is  perfectly  milky  cannot  well 


SIZE  AND  GRANDEUR  OF  THE  NEBULAS. 


163 


be  supposed  to  be  at  less  than  six  or  eight  thousand  times  the 
distance  of  Sirius ;  and  though  the  numbers  here  assumed  are 
not  to  be  taken  otherwise  than  as  very  coarse  estimates,  yet 
an  extended  nebula  which  in  an  oblique  situation,  where  it  is 
possibly  foreshortened  by  one-half,  two-thirds,  or  three-fourths 
of  its  length,  subtends  a  degree  or  more  in  diameter,  cannot 
be  otherwise  than  of  a  wonderful  magnitude ,  and  may  well 

OUTVIE  OUR  MILKY  WAY  IN  GRANDEUR.” 

It  appears  to  be  a  very  natural  conclusion,  that  the  nebulae 
which  are  perfectly  similar  in  form,  colour,  and  the  distribu¬ 
tion  of  stars,  but  only  half  the  diameter,  and  the  stars  doubly 
crowded,  are  about  double  the  distance  from  the  first.  And  if 
the  distance  of  the  larger  nebulae,  whose  stars  are  distinctly 
seen,  be  at  least  600  times  the  distance  of  Sirius,  as  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe,  then  the  distance  of  those  which  are 
only  half  the  diameter  must  be  about  1200  times  the  distance 
of  that  star;  that  is  at  the  very  least,  24,000,000,000,000,000, 
or  twenty-four  thousand  billions  of  miles.  But  the  nebulae 
whose  light  is  u  perfectly  milky,”  or  so  far  removed  from  us 
that  the  stars  of  which  they  are  composed  cannot  be  sepa¬ 
rately  distinguished,  may  be  justly  considered  as  seven  thou¬ 
sand  times  the  distance  of  Sirius,  or,  in  numbers,  168,000,- 
000,000,000,000,  or  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  thousand 
billions  of  miles ! — a  distance  of  which  we  can  have  no  dis¬ 
tinct  conception.  Light,  notwithstanding  its  amazing  velocity, 
would  be  nearly  thirty  thousand  years  ere  it  could  fly  from 
such  nebulae  to  the  earth ;  and  a  cannon  ball,  with  its  utmost 
velocity,  would  require  more  than  thirty-eight  thousand  mil¬ 
lions  of  years  before  it  could  move  over  an  equal  space.  Since 
the  distance  of  these  nebulae  is  so  immense,  and  since  those 
which  are  among  the  largest  and  nearest  are  found  by  actual 
observation  to  be  composed  of  countless  numbers  of  stars, 
leaving  us  no  room  to  doubt  that  the  most  distant  are  also 
immense  systems  of  stars,  how  great  must  be  the  magnitude , 
and  how  inexpressible  the  grandeur,  of  the  numerous  lumi¬ 
naries  of  which  they  are  composed  ! 

I  have  stated  above  that  more  than  three  thousand  nebulae 
have  already  been  discovered,  and  whose  places  in  the  hea¬ 
vens  have  been  accurately  determined,  so  that  those  who  have 
access  to  powerful  telescopes  may  have  an  opportunity  of  ob¬ 
serving  the  greater  part  of  them.  From  all  the  observations 
made  by  Sir  W.  Herschel,  he  is  of  opinion  that  our  nebula,  or 
the  Milky  Way,  is  not  the  most  considerable  in  the  universe: 
and  he  points  out  some  very  remarkable  nebulae  which  in  his 
opinion  canu  ot  be  less,  but  are  probably  much  larger ,  than 


164 


VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  NEBULiE. 


that  of  which  our  own  sun  and  system  form  a  part.  Now,  on 
these  grounds  let  us  consider  what  must  be  the  extent  and 
magnitude  of  only  the  visible  universe.  Supposing  the  num¬ 
ber  of  stars  composing  the  Milky  Way  to  be  ten  millions, 
which  is  only  half  the  number  formerly  assigned,  (p.  138) 
and  that  each  of  the  nebulae  at  an  average  contains  the  same 
number ;  supposing,  further,  that  only  two  thousand  of  the 
three  thousand  nebulae  are  resolvable  into  clusters  of  stars, 
and  that  the  other  thousands  are  masses  of  a  shining  fluid  not 
yet  condensed  into  distinct  luminous  globes ;  the  number  of 
stars,  or  suns,  comprehended  in  that  portion  of  the  firmament 
which  is  within  the  reach  of  our  telescopes  would  be  20,000,- 
000,000,  or  twenty  thousand  millions ,  which  is  twenty  millions 
of  times  the  number  of  all  the  stars  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

Great  as  the  number  is,  and  magnificent  and  overpowering 
as  the  ideas  are  which  it  suggests  of  the  extent  of  creation,  yet 
these  vast  assemblages  of  systems  may  be  no  more  than  as  a 
single  nebula  to  the  whole  visible  firmament,  or  even  as  a 
grain  of  sand  to  the  whole  earth,  compared  with  what  lies  be¬ 
yond  the  range  of  human  vision,  and  is  hid  from  mortal  eye 
in  the  boundless  and  unexplored  region  of  immensity!  Be¬ 
yond  the  boundaries  of  all  that  will  ever  be  visible  to  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  our  globe,  an  infinite  region  exists,  in  which  we 
have  every  reason  to  believe  the  Deity  sits  enthroned  in  all 
the  grandeur  of  his  overflowing  goodness  and  omnipotence, 
presiding  over  innumerable  systems,  far  surpassing  in  magnifi¬ 
cence  what  “eye  hath  yet  seen”  or  the  most  brilliant  intellect 
can  conceive.  For  we  ought  never  for  a  moment  to  surmise 
that  the  operations  of  Almighty  Power  are  exhausted  at  the 
point  where  the  efforts  of  genius  and  art  can  no  longer  afford 
us  assistance  in  tracing  the  footsteps  of  the  Divinity  through 
the  mysterious  regions  of  infinitude;  nor  should  we  ever  sup¬ 
pose  that  man,  placed  on  such  a  diminutive  ball  as  the  earth, 
and  furnished  with  powers  of  so  limited  a  nature  as  those  with 
which  he  is  now  invested,  will  ever  be  able  to  grasp  the  do¬ 
minions  of  Him  who  fills  immensity  with  his  presence,  and 
whose  ways  are  past  finding  out.” 

Section  II. — On  the  various  kinds  of  Nebulae. 

I  have  already  alluded  to  the  different  shapes  or  forms  of 
nebulae.  These  objects,  on  account  of  their  appearing  with 
different  degrees  of  lustre,  and  assuming  a  great  variety  of 
shapes  and  modifications 
classes. 


,  have  been  arranged  into  differen* 


VARIOUS  3INDS  OP  NEBULAS. 


165 


1.  The  first  class  is  that  of  clusters  of  stars ,  in  which  the 
separate  stars  are  clearly  distinguished  by  good  telescopes. 
This  class  is  again  divided  into  globular  clusters,  or  those 
which  appear  of  a  roundish  form,  and  somewhat  compressed 
towards  the  centre  \  and  irregular  clusters,  or  those  which 
are  neither  circular  nor  elliptical,  but  of  a  somewhat  indefinite 


166 


RESOLVABLE  NEBTJL2E. 


or  angular  form.  These  last  are  generally  less  rich  in  stars, 
and  less  condensed  towards  the  centre,  and  are  likewise  less 
definite  in  their  outline,  so  that  their  termination  in  many 
cases  cannot  be  distinctly  perceived.  In  some  of  them  the 
stars  are  nearly  all  of  the  same  size,  in  others  extremely 
different ;  and  u  it  is  no  uncommon  thing,”  says  Sir  J.  Her- 
schel,  u  to  find  a  very  red  star,  much  brighter  than  the  rest, 
occupying  a  conspicuous  situation  in  them.”  Sir  W.  Herschel 
regards  these  as  globular  clusters  in  a  less  advanced  state  of 
condensation,  conceiving  all  such  groups  as  approaching,  by 
their  mutual  attraction,  to  the  globular  figure,  and  assembling 
themselves  together  from  all  the  surrounding  region,  under 
laws  of  which  we  have  no  other  proof  than  the  observance  of 
a  gradation  by  which  their  characters  shade  into  one  another, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  to  say  where  one  species  ends  and  the 
other  begins.”  Fig.  41,  formerly  referred  to,  represents  one 
of  the  globular  clusters  in  the  constellation  Hercules.  Fig.  42 
is  a  view  of  a  curious  but  somewhat  irregular  group,  seen  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  as  sketched  by  Mr.  Dunlop,  at  Para¬ 
matta,  New  South  Wales.  It  is  the  30  Doradus,  or  Xipheas, 
and  is  rather  a  singular  object,  but  evidently  a  large  cluster  of 
stars,  presenting  two  or  three  very  condensed  strata,  as  if  they 
were  crowded  to  excess  by  an  immense  confluence  of  stars. 

2.  Another  class  is  that  termed  resolvable  nebula ,  or  those 
which  lead  us  to  suppose  that  they  consist  of  stars  which 
would  be  separately  distinguishable  by  an  increase  of  light 
and  magnifying  power  in  the  telescope.  These  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  clusters  too  remote  to  be  distinctly  seen,  the  stars 
composing  which  are  either  too  faint  in  their  light  or  too 
small  in  size  to  make  a  definite  impression  upon  the  organs 
of  vision.  They  are  almost  universally  round  or  oval,  which 
is  supposed  to  be  owing  to  their  loose  appendages  and  irre¬ 
gularities  of  form  being  extinguished  by  their  distance,  the 
general  figure  of  the  central  or  more  condensed  parts  being 
only  discernible.  u  It  is  under  the  appearance  of  objects  of 
this  character,”  says  Sir  J.  Herschel,  u  that  all  the  greater 
globular  clusters  exhibit  themselves  in  telescopes  of  insuffi¬ 
cient  optical  power  to  shew  them  well ;  and  the  conclusion 
is  obvious,  that  those  which  the  most  powerful  can  barely 
render  resolvable ,  would  be  completely  resolved  by  a  furthei 
increase  of  instrumental  force. 

3.  Besides  the  above,  there  is  an  immense  variety  of  ne¬ 
bulae,  properly  so  called ,  which  no  telescopes  have  hitherto 
been  able  to  resolve  into  stars,  and  which  is  supposed  to  be  a 
species  of  matter  diffused  throughout  infinite  space,  in  various 


:  y  - 


: 

•  - 


PLA 


MINIATURE  MAP  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  ON  MERCATOR’S  PRfE1 


Between  pages  166 — 16? 


it:  y. 


‘IKlECTION,  SHOWING  THE  COURSE  OF  THE  MILKY  WAY. 


I 


WEST 


VIEWS  AND  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  NEBULJE.  167 

portions  and  degrees  of  condensation,  and  which  may,  in  the 
course  of  ages,  be  condensed  into  stars  or  starry  systems. 
The  following  is  a  description  of  some  of  the  more  remarkable 
varieties  of  this  class  of  nebulae. 

Fig.  43  represents  a  nebula  of  an  elliptical  or  spindle-like 
form.  It  is  visible  to  the  naked  eye  in  a  clear  night,  when  the 
moon  is  absent,  and  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  a  small 
comet.  It  appears  like  a  dull,  cloudy,  undefined  spot  upon 
the  concave  of  the  firmament,  and  has  sometimes  been 
compared  to  the  light  of  a  small  candle  shining  through  horn. 
Its  central  parts  appear  brightest,  but  its  light  gradually  fades 
towards  each  extremity.  A  few  small  stars  appear  adjacent 
to  it,  and  even  within  its  boundaries,  but  it  appears  pretty 
evident  that  they  have  no  immediate  connexion  with  the  ne¬ 
bula.  Its  form,  as  here  delineated,  may  be  seen  with  a  tele¬ 
scope  of  moderate  power,  but  no  telescope  hitherto  constructed, 
even  with  the  highest  powers  that  could  be  applied,  has  yet 
been  sufficient  to  resolve  it  into  stars.  In  size,  it  is  nearly 
half  a  degree  long,  and  12  or  15  minutes  broad.  Though  the 
figure  of  this  object  appears  oval  or  elliptical,  it  is  not  unlikely 
that  it  is  in  reality  nearly  of  a  globular  figure,  and  that  its 
oval  appearance  is  owing  to  its  position  with  regard  to  our 
eye.  This  nebula  is  situated  in  the  girdle  of  Andromeda, 
within  a  degree  or  two  of  the  star  v  of  that  constellation.  It 
is  about  15°  nearly  west  from  Almaach ,  and  8°  north  by  west 
of  Meracli ,  with  which  stars  it  forms  nearly  a  right-angled 
triangle.  It  may  be  seen  in  a  north-westerly  direction  in  the 
evenings  of  the  months  of  January,  February,  and  March,  at 
a  considerable  elevation.  It,  comes  to  the  meridian  about  the 
middle  of  November,  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening.  Its 
right  ascension  is  0h  33' ;  and  north  declination,  40°  20'. 
This  nebula  may  be  considered  as  a  representative,  on  a  large 
scale,  of  a  numerous  class  of  nebulae,  which  increase  more  or 
less  in  density  towards  the  central  point.  The  representation 
of  it  in  the  plate  is  somewhat  longer  and  narrower  than  it 
appears  through  a  telescope  magnifying  140  times. 

Fig.  44  represents  a  kind  of  elliptical  nebula,  with  a  'va¬ 
cancy  of  a  lenticular  form  in  the  centre.  It  is  pretty  evident 
that  such  nebulae  are  in  reality  large  rings,  which  appear  of 
an  oval  or  lenticular  form  in  consequence  of  their  lying  ob¬ 
liquely  to  our  line  of  vision.  This  is  undoubtedly  a  large 
starry  s}^stem,  comprising  perhaps  millions  of  stars,  at  such  a 
distance  that  their  combined  light  appears  only  like  a  faint 
nebula.  It  probably  is  not  much  unlike  the  form  of  our 
Milky  Way  in  which  the  sun  is  situated.  Its  right  ascension 


168 


NEBULA  IN  LYRA. 


is  2h  12',  and  north  decl.  41°  35'.  It  lies  near  y  Andromedae, 
or  Almaach,  about  4°  to  the  eastward  of  that  star,  nearly  in  a 
line  between  it  and  Algol,  in  the  head  of  Medusa,  and  about 
19°  east  from  the  nebula  represented  in  Fig.  43. 

Fig.  45  is  a  representation  of  an  annular  nebula,  which 
may  be  seen  with  a  telescope  of  moderate  power.  It  does 
not  occupy  so  much  space  in  the  heavens  as  the  preceding 
nebulae,  but  it  is  well  defined,  and  has  the  appearance  of  a 
flat,  solid  ring.  It  is  not  perfectly  circular,  but  somewhat 
elliptical,  the  conjugate  axis  of  the  ellipse  being  to  the  trans¬ 
verse  nearly  in  the  proportion  of  4  to  5.  The  opening  occu¬ 
pies  about  half  its  diameter,  and  is  not  entirely  dark,  but  filled 
up  with  a  very  faint  hazy  light,  uniformly  spread  over  it.  Its 
light  is  not  of  a  pure  milky  white,  but  is  somewhat  mottled 
in  its  appearance  near  the  exterior  edge.  This  curious  pheno¬ 
menon,  like  the  preceding,  is  doubtless  an  immense  stellar 
system,  situated  at  an  immeasurable  distance  in  the  profundity 
of  space.  It  is  situated  in  the  constellation  of  Lyra,  exactly 
half-way  between  the  stars  j3  and  y,  so  that  its  position  may 
be  found  by  common  observers  without  any  difficulty.  Its 
right  ascension  is  18h  47' ;  and  north  declination,  32° 

The  following  cut  (fig.  48)  represents  some  of  the  principal 
stars  in  the  constellation  of  the  Lyre.  The  largest  star  near 
the  upper  part  is  Vega ,  a  bright  star  of  the  first  magnitude ; 
the  next  larger  star,  south  by  east  of  which  is  j3 ;  and  the 


Fig.  46.* 

North . 


4-  . 


i,  +■ 


+ 


+ 


* 


Vega,  or 
a  Lyra e, 


0 

Nebula. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  NEBULJE. 


160 


other  star  of  the  same  magnitude  to  the  south-east  is  y ;  be¬ 
tween  which  is  the  annular  nebula,  about  7^°  from  Vega. 

Fig.  46  represents  an  object  somewhat  similar  to  the  above. 
It  is  situated  between  the  constellations  Anser  and  Cygnus, 
about  9^°  south  from  the  star  y  Cygni,  and  17°  east  from  the 


Vol.  VIII. 


50 


15 


52 


170 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  NEBTTLJS. 


phenomenon  described  above  *  Its  right  ascension  is  20“  9f, 
and  north  declination,  30°  3'.  It  comes  to  the  meridian, 
about  the  10th  of  September,  at  nine  o’clock  in  the  evening. 

The  opposite  page  contains  representations  of  several  other 
kinds  of  nebulae,  some  of  which  are  extremely  curious  and 
singular.  Fig.  47  is  a  very  singular  and  wonderful  object. 
It  has  the  shape  of  a  dumb-bell  or  hour-glass  of  bright  matter, 
surrounded  by  a  thin  hazy  atmosphere;  the  two  connected 
hemispheres,  and  the  space  which  connects  them,  are  beauti¬ 
ful  and  pretty  bright.  The  oval  is  completed  by  a  space  on 
each  side,  which  is  much  more  dim  and  hazy  than  the  two 
hemispheres.  The  whole  has  an  oval  form,  like  that  of  an 
oblate  spheroid.  The  southern  hemisphere  is  somewhat 
denser  than  the  northern,  and  there  are  one  or  two  stars  in  it. 
It  appears  evidently  to  be  a  dense  collection  of  stars,  at  an 
immeasurable  distance  from  the  region  in  which  we  reside, 
and  leads  us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  endless  diversities  of  shape 
and  form  among  those  countless  assemblages  of  stars  with 
which  the  universe  is  replenished.  This  nebula  is  situated  in 
right  ascension,  19h  52' ;  north  declination,  22°  16' ;  in  the 
breast  of  Anser  et  Vulpecula,  about  midway  between  Albireo 
in  the  Swan,  and  the  principal  stars  of  the  Dolphin,  about  three 
or  four  degrees  north  of  Sagitta,  a  star  of  the  fourth  magni¬ 
tude. 

Fig.  48  is  likewise  a  very  remarkable  object.  It  consists 
of  a  bright  round  nucleus,  or  central  part,  surrounded  at  a 
great  distance  by  a  nebulous  ring.  This  ring  appears  split 
through  nearly  the  greater  part  of  its  circumference,  the  two 
portions  of  which  being  separated  at  about  an  angle  of  45°. 
This  nebula  lies  near  the  remotest  boundaries  to  which  our 
telescopes  can  carry  us.  It  has  never  been  resolved  into  stars 
by  the  highest  powers  that  have  yet  been  applied  ;  but  there 
is  little  doubt  that  it  is  a  grand  scheme  of  sidereal  systems, 

*  It  may  not  be  improper  here  to  remark,  once  for  all,  that  the  bear 
ings  or  directions  of  the  stars  from  one  another,  given  here  and  in  other 
parts  of  this  volume,  are  strictly  applicable  only  when  the  principal  star, 
from  which  the  bearings  are  stated,  is  on  or  near  the  meridian.  When  in 
other  positions,  they  will  appear  to  a  common  observer  to  have  different 
bearings  ;  for  example,  the  star  Vega  or  Lyra,  in  the  above  figure,  when 
about  50°  or  60°  above  the  western  horizon,  will  appear  at  an  equal 
altitude  as  the  star  /3,  south-west  by  south  of  it ;  and  when  about  30°  or 
40°  above  the  eastern  horizon,  the  two  stars  will  appear,  the  one  directly 
above  or  below  the  other.  This  difference  in  the  apparent  directions  of 
the  stars  from  each  other  is  most  observable  in  those  which  are  near  the 
pole  ;  for  example,  the  stars  of  the  Great  Bear  appear  in  one  part  of  their 
revolution  west  from  the  pole,  and  in  another  part  of  their  course  east  of  it. 
These  and  other  circumstances  require  to  be  attended  to,  in  order  to  find 
particular  stars  by  their  bearings  from  one  or  more  principal  stars. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  NEBTJL2E. 


171 


perhaps  exceeding  our  Milky  Way  in  number  and  magnifi¬ 
cence.  It  is  indeed  supposed  to  bear  a  more  striking  resem 
blance  to  the  system  of  stars  in  which  the  sun  is  placed  than 
any  other  object  which  has  yet  been  discovered  in  the  hea¬ 
vens,  as  may  be  perceived  by  turning  to  figure  39,  (p.  145,) 
which  represents  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  scheme  of  the  Milky  Way; 
and  hence  Sir  John  Herschel  describes  it  as  u  a  brother  system, 
bearing  a  real  physical  resemblance  and  strong  analogy  of 
structure  to  our  own.”  This  object,  dim  and  distant  as  it 
may  appear  through  our  telescopes,  and  utterly  invisible  as  it 
is  to  the  unassisted  eye,  may  be  considered  as  a  kind  of  uni¬ 
verse  in  itself,  ten  thousand  times  more  grand  and  extensive 
than  the  whole  creation  was  supposed  to  be  in  the  infancy  of 
astronomy.  Like  the  preceding  nebula,  it  shews  us  what  sin¬ 
gular  varieties  of  structure  are  to  be  found  in  the  systems 
which  compose  the  universe,  and  at  the  same  time  it  exhibits 
a  certain  resemblance  to  another  system  of  which  we  form  a 
part;  and  perhaps  something  similar,  though  not  precisely  of 
the  same  form  and  arrangement,  may  be  found  in  other  parts 
of  the  sidereal  heavens.  This  phenomenon  is  situated  near 
the  back  of  Asterion,  about  five  degrees  south  by  west  of 
Benetnasch ,  the  last  star  in  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear;  be¬ 
tween  which  star  and  the  nebula  there  is  a  small  star  of  the 
fifth  magnitude,  nearer  to  the  nebula  than  to  Benetnasch.  Its 
right  ascension  is  13h  22';  and  north  declination,  46°  14k 
Figures  49,  50,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57,  and  58,  represent 
some  specimens  of  nebulous  stars ,  or  of  nebulae  connected 
with  very  small  stars. 

Fig.  49  shews  a  nebulosity,  or  something  like  a  nebulous 
stream,  extending  from  one  small  star  to  another,  as  if  there 
was  a  communication  between  them.  The  next  three  figures 
are  representations  of  similar  phenomena.  In  figure  52  the 
nebulous  substance  appears  much  broader  than  in  the  others, 
though  this  may  possibly  be  owing  to  the  nebula  in  its  greatest 
extent  being  presented  to  our  line  of  vision. 

Figs.  54,  55,  56,  are  very  small  stars,  with  faint  and  small 
nebulae  attached  to  them  in  the  shape  of  a  puff.  Fig.  57  is  a 
small  star,  with  a  small,  faint,  fan-shaped  nebulosity  joined  to 
it.  Fig.  58  represents  two  considerable  stars  involved  in  a 
very  faint  nebulosity  of  three  or  four  minutes  in  extent.  What 
this  nebulous  substance  in  reality  is,  or  what  connexion  it 
may  have  with  the  stars  which  appear  in  its  vicinity,  it  is 
difficult  to  conjecture.  It  is  a  species  of  nebulae,  which  does 
not  appear  to  be  resolvable  into  stars,  and  therefore  may  be 
regarded  as  a  distinct  luminous  substance  diffused  throughout 


172 


DESCRIPTIONS  OP  NEBUL2E. 


different  regions  of  the  universe,  subserving  some  important 
designs  in  the  physical  economy  of  creation  of  which  we  aie 
ignorant.  Specimens  of  some  of  these  phenomena  will  be 
found  in  the  following  situations; — 1.  Right  ascension,  2CR 
56';  north  declination,  11°  24/;  a  little  to  the  east  of  the 
cluster  of  stars  called  the  Dolphin.  2.  Right  ascension,  8h  46' ; 
north  declination,  54°  25';  about  seven  degrees  north-west  of 
the  star  TheUi  of  the  Great  Bear.  3.  Right  ascension,  12h51'; 
north  declination,  35°  47';  about  four  degrees  south  of  the 
star  Cor  Caroli ,  the  principal  star  in  the  Greyhounds.  4. 
Right  ascension,  6h  30' ;  north  declination,  8°  53' ;  which  is 
in  the  head  of  Monoceros,  or  the  Unicorn,  about  eleven 
degrees  east  of  Betel guese,  in  the  right  shoulder  of  Orion, 
and  about  seven  degrees  due  south  of  Gemini,  which  is  in  the 
left  foot  of  one  of  the  Twins. 

Figs..  59  to  65  represent  a  few  specimens  of  objects  which 
come  under  the  denomination  of  extensive  diffusive  nebulosi¬ 
ties.  These  phenomena  were  very  little  noticed  till  lately, 
and  can  only  be  perceived  by  telescopes  of  large  aperture, 
which  collect  a  great  quantity  of  light,  in  adverting  to  one 
of  these  objects,  Sir  W.  Herschel  describes  it  as  follows : — 
“Extreme  faint  branching  nebulosity;  its  whitishness  is  en¬ 
tirely  of  the  milky  kind,  and  it  is  brighter  in  three  or  four 
places  than  the  rest;  the  stars  of  the  Milky  Way  are  scattered 
over  it  in  the  same  manner  as  over  the  rest  of  the  heavens. 
Its  extent  in  the  parallel  is  nearly  one  degree  and  a  half,  and 
in  the  meridional  direction  about  fifty-two  minutes.”  It  ap¬ 
pears  that  this  diffused  nebulosity  is  very  extensive ;  for  of 
fifty-two  nebulae  of  this  description  which  had  never  been  be¬ 
fore  observed,  Herschel  found  them  to  occupy  no  less  than 
152  square  degrees.  A  specimen  of  an  extensive  diffusive 
nebula  of  this  description  is  represented  in  fig.  59. 

Sir  W.  Herschel  has  presented  us  with  fourteen  specimens 
related  to  this  class,  of  what  he  terms  nebulosities  joined  to 
nebula,  one  of  which  is  represented  in  fig.  60,  where  a  bright 
nebulous  speck  is  connected  with  a  faint  nebulosity,  which 
seems  to  proceed  from  it  as  from  a  central  point,  increasing 
in  breadth  in  proportion  to  the  distance,  till  it  terminates  in  a 
kind  of  irregular  margin.  Fig.  61  represents  what  is  called  a 
milky  nebula  with  condensation.  It  appears  to  be  a  roundish 
nebula,  condensed  towards  the  central  parts.  It  is  natural  to 
suppose,  when  we  see  a  gradual  increase  of  light,  that  there  is 
a  condensation  of  the  substance  which  produces  it  in  the  space 
which  appears  brightest,  or  at  least  that  the  luminous  sub¬ 
stance  is  deeper  in  the  brighter  space.  Some  of  the  nebulosi- 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  NEBULISE. 


173 


ties  of  this  class  are  not  always  extensively  diffused,  but  are 
sometimes  met  with  in  detached  collections,  near  to  each 
other,  but  completely  separate,  as  represented  at  a,  c, 
fig.  62. 

A  diffused  nebulosity  of  this  kind  may  be  seen  about  six  or 


f 

I 


174 


DIFFUSIVE  NEBULOSITIES. 


seven  degrees  due  east  from  the  star  Zeta  Cygni,  near  the 
back  or  tail  of  Anser.  Its  right  ascension  is  20h  38',  and 
north  declination,  30°  6'.  Another,  whose  right  ascension  is 
20h  49',  and  north  declination,  31°  3',  is  found  about  three  or 
four  degrees  north-west  of  Zeta  Cygni,  and  within  two  or 
three  degrees  of  the  preceding. 

Figures  63,  64,  and  65,  are  representations  of  nebulae  which 
are  brighter  in  more  than  one  place,  which  appearance  is 
supposed  to  be  owing  to  so  many  predominant  seats  of  attrac¬ 
tion,  owing  to  a  superior  preponderance  of  the  nebulous  matter 
in  those  places  causing  a  division  of  it,  from  which  will  arise 
three  or  four  distinct  nebulae. 

Figs.  66  to  71  are  representations  of  nebulae  of  various  de¬ 
scriptions.  The  three  upper  figures,  numbered  66,  are  nebulae 
that  are  suddenly  much  brighter  in  the  middle.  A  nucleus  to 
which  these  nebulae  seem  co  approach  is  considered  as  indi¬ 
cating  consolidation ;  and  that,  should  we  have  reason  to  con¬ 
clude  that  a  solid  body  can  be  formed  of  condensed  nebulous 
matter,  the  nature  o-  which  has  been  chiefly  deduced  from  its 
shining  quality,  we  may  possibly  be  able  to  view  it  with  re¬ 
spect  to  some  other  of  its  properties.  The  three  figures,  No. 
67,  represent  extended  nebulae  and  round  nebulae ,  that  shew 
the  progress  of  condensation.  These  nebulae  appear  further 
condensed  than  the  preceding,  and  appear  surrounded  with 
the  rarest  nebulous  matter,  which,  not  having  as  yet  been  con¬ 
solidated  with  the  rest,  remains  expanded  about  the  nucleus 
in  the  shape  of  a  very  extended  atmosphere.  The  three  figures 
in  the  third  row  from  the  top  of  the  plate,  marked  No.  68,  and 
the  first  figure  to  the  left  hand  of  No.  69,  represent  nebulae 
which  are  almost  of  an  uniform  light,  and  nebulas  that  draw 
progressively  towards  a  period  of  final  condensation.  u  In 
the  course  of  the  gradual  condensation  of  the  nebulous  mat¬ 
ter,”  says  Sir  W.  Herschel,  “  it  may  be  expected  that  a  time 
must  come  when  it  can  no  longer  be  compressed,  and  the  only 
cause  which  we  may  suppose  to  put  an  end  to  the  compression 
is,  when  the  consolidated  mass  assumes  hardness.  From  the 
size  of  the  nebulae,  as  we  see  them  at  present,  we  cannot  form 
an  idea  of  the  original  bulk  of  the  nebulous  matter  they  con¬ 
tain  ;  but  let  us  admit,  for  the  sake  of  computation,  that  the 
nebulosity  of  a  certain  nebula,  when  it  was  in  a  state  of  diffu¬ 
sion,  took  iip  a  space  of  ten  minutes  in  every  cubical  direction 
of  its  expansion,  then,  as  we  now  see  it  collected  into  a  globu¬ 
lar  compass  of  less  than  one  minute,  it  must  of  couse  be  more 
than  1900  times  denser  than  it  was  in  its  original  state.  This 
proportion  of  density  is  more  than  double  that  of  water  to  air.” 


DIFFUSIVE  NEBULOSITIES. 


175 


The  small  nebulas  represented  in  No.  70  are  stellar  nebula 
which  approach  to  the  appearance  of  stars,  and  one  or  two  of 
doubtful  character.  The  four  figures  marked  No  71,  repre¬ 
sent  separate  views  of  the  gradual  condensation  of  the  nebu¬ 
lous  substance.  In  these  we  may  evidently  perceive  a  striking 


:>;,v 


Wmit 

$mk:- 

ili#; 


gsasa&i 


176 


STELLAR  NEBULAS. 


gradation  in  the  light  and  brilliancy  of  the  central  parts.  The 
figure  on  the  left  hand  side  represents  an  object  nearly  in  its 
original  state  of  nebulosity ;  the  next  towards  the  right  ap¬ 
pears  considerably  condensed  towards  the  central  parts;  the 
third  figure  represents  a  condensation  still  greater;  and  the 
one  on  the  right  hand  exhibits  a  condensation  nearly  com¬ 
plete,  or  a  huge  luminous  body  surrounded  with  a  lucid  at¬ 
mosphere.  Each  of  these  is  the  representative  of  an  extensive 
class  of  objects  of  this  description. 

Section  III  .—On  Planetary  Nebulae. 

This  designation  is  given  to  a  class  of  nebulae  which  bear  a 
very  near  resemblance  to  planetary  disks  when  seen  through 
telescopes.  But,  notwithstanding  their  planetary  aspect,  some 
small  remaining  haziness,  by  which  they  are  more  or  less 
surrounded,  evinces  their  nebulous  origin.  They  are  some¬ 
what  extraordinary  objects,  with  round  or  slightly  oval  disks, 
in  some  instances  quite  sharply  terminated,  in  others,  a  little 
hazy  at  the  borders,  and  of  a  light  exactly  equable,  or  only  a 
very  little  mottled,  which  in  some  of  them  approaches  in 
vividness  to  the  light  of  actual  planets.  The  following  are 
some  of  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  remarks  on  these  bodies  : — If  we 
should  suppose  them  to  be  single  stars  with  large  diameters, 
we  shall  find  it  difficult  to  account  for  their  not  being  brighter, 
unless  we  should  admit  that  the  intrinsic  light  of  some  stars 
may  be  very  much  inferior  to  that  of  the  generality,  which, 
however,  can  hardly  be  imagined  to  extend  to  such  a  degree. 
We  might  suppose  them  to  be  comets  about  their  aphelion,  if 
the  brightness  as  well  as  magnitude  of  their  diameters  did  not 
oppose  this  idea;  so  that,  after  all,  we  can  hardly  find  any 
hypothesis  so  probable  as  that  of  their  being  nebulae ;  but  then 
they  must  consist  of  stars  that  are  compressed  and  ac¬ 
cumulated  in  the  highest  degree.  At  a  subsequent  period,  Sir 
William  remarks,  “  When  we  reflect  on  the  circumstances 
connected  with  these  bodies,  we  may  conceive  that,  perhaps, 
in  progress  of  time  these  nebulae  which  are  already  in  a  state 
of  compression  may  be  still  further  compressed  so  as  actually 
to  become  stars.  It  may  be  supposed  that  solid  bodies 
such  as  we  suppose  the  stars  to  be,  from  the  analogy  of  their 
light  with  that  of  our  sun  when  seen  at  the  distance  of  the 
stars,  can  hardly  be  formed  of  a  condensation  of  nebulous 
matter ;  but  if  the  immensity  of  it  required  to  fill  a  cubical 
space  which  will  measure  ten  minutes,  when  seen  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  a  star  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  magnitude,  is  well  con- 


MAGNITUDE  OF  PLANETARY  NEBULJE. 


177 


sidiued,  and  properly  compared  with  the  very  small  angle 
our  sun  would  subtend  at  the  same  distance,  no  degree  of 
rarity  of  the  nebulous  matter  to  which  we  have  recourse  can 
be  any  objection  to  the  solidity  required  for  the  construction 
of  a  body  of  equal  magnitude  with  our  sun.” 

The  nature  of  these  nebulae  is  involved  in  considerable 
darkness  and  mystery.  As  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  other 
species  of  these  phenomena,  so  in  this,  the  mind  feels  unable  to 
form  any  definite  or  satisfactory  conceptions  on  the  subject. 
The  following  remarks  of  Sir  J.  Herschel  comprise  most  of 
what  can  be  stated,  in  the  meantime,  on  this  subject: — u  What¬ 
ever  be  their  nature,  they  must  be  of  enormous  magnitude. 
One  of  them  is  to  be  found  in  the  parallel  of  v  Aquarii,  and 
about  five  minutes  preceding  that  star.  Its  apparent  diameter 
is  about  twenty  seconds.  Another,  in  the  constellation  An¬ 
dromeda,  presents  a  visible  disk  of  twelve  seconds  perfectly 
defined  and  round.  Granting  these  objects  to  be  equally  dis¬ 
tant  from  us  with  the  stars,  their  real  dimensions  must  be  such 
as  would  fill,  on  the  lowest  computation,  the  whole  orbit  of 
Uranus.  It  is  no  less  evident  that,  if  they  be  solid  bodies  of  a 
solar  nature,  the  intrinsic  splendour  of  their  surfaces  must  be 
almost  infinitely  inferior  to  that  of  the  sun’s.  A  circular  por¬ 
tion  of  the  sun’s  disk,  subtending  an  angle  of  twenty  seconds,, 
would  give  a  light  equal  to  100  full  moons ,  while  the  objects 
in  question  are  hardly,  if  at  all,  discernible  with  the  naked  eye. 
The  uniformity  of  their  disks,  and  their  want  of  apparent  cen¬ 
tral  condensation,  would  certainly  augur  their  light  to  be 
merely  superficial,  and  in  the  nature  of  a  hollow  superficial 
shell ;  but  whether  filled  with  solid  or  gaseous  matter,  or 
altogether  empty,  it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  conjecture.” 

In  this  description  there  is  nothing  which  strikes  the  mind 
with  such  astonishment  as  the  enormous  magnitude  of  these 
planetary  nebulas.  A  globular  body  which  would  fill  the 
orbit  of  Uranus  would  contain  24,429,081,600,000,000,000,- 
000,000,000,  or  more  than  twenty-four  thousand  quartilions 
of  solid  miles.  The  solid  contents  of  the  sun  is  about  357,- 
000,000,000,000,000,  or  three  hundred  and  fifty-seven  thou¬ 
sand  billions  of  cubical  miles.  If  the  former  number  be 
divided  by  the  latter,  the  quotient  will  be  68,428,800,000, 
shewing  that  the  nebulae  in  question  would  contain  within  its 
circumference  sixty-eight  thousand,  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
eight  millions,  and  eight  hundred  thousand  globes  as  large  as 
the  sun.  A  body  of  such  a  bulk  is  more  than  thirty-four 
billions,  wo  hundred  thousand  millions  of  times  larger  than 
all  the  primary  planets  and  their  satellites  whicfr  belong  to  our 


178 


POSITIONS  OF  PLANETARY  NEBULiE. 


system.  What  is  the  special  destination  of  such  huge  masses 
of  matter,  or  what  important  designs  they  subserve  in  the 
physical  and  moral  arrangements  of  the  Governor  of  the  uni¬ 
verse,  it  is  beyond  our  power,  in  the  mean  time,  to  form  even 
a  probable  conjecture.  Future  generations  may  perhaps  be 
enabled  to  throw  some  light  on  this  subject,  though  it  is  pro¬ 
bable  that  the  nature,  properties,  and  ultimate  designs  of  many 
such  objects  will  only  be  fully  disclosed  throughout  the  revo¬ 
lutions  of  that  interminable  duration  which  succeeds  the  short 
span  of  human  existence ;  but  of  this  we  may  rest  assured, 
that  they  are  not  useless  masses  of  materials  in  the  universe, 
but  are  subservient  to  purposes  worthy  of  Him  whose  wisdom 
is  infinite,  and  whose  understanding  is  unsearchable. 

The  four  figures  towards  the  right  hand  of  the  plate,  marked 
No. 69,  represent  some  specimens  of  planetary  nebulae.  One 
of  those  bodies  may  be  seen  near  the  star  v  Aquarii,  as  above 
stated.  Its  right  ascension  is  nearly  20h  52',  and  its  south 
declination  about  12°  26b  It  lies  north  by  west  of  the  star 
JDeneb  Jllgedi ,  at  the  distance  of  about  ten  degrees.  Other 
nebulae  of  this  description  may  be  found  near  the  following 
stars  : — 3  p  Sagittae,  14  Andromeda,  63  b  Crateris,  61  g  Sa- 
gittae,  10  Camelopardus,  36  Ursae  Majoris,  6  Navis,  and  6 
Draconis.  About  three  minutes  west  from  the  star  16  c  Cygni 
the  following  phenomenon  is  found : — A  bright  point  a  little 
extended,  like  two  points  close  to  each  other.  It  is  as  bright 
as  a  star  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  magnitude,  surrounded  by  a 
very  bright  milky  nebulosity,  suddenly  terminated,  having  the 
appearance  of  a  planetary  nebula  with  a  lucid  centre.  The 
border  is  not  well  defined ;  it  is  perfectly  round,  and  about 
one  minute  and  thirty  seconds  in  diameter.  This  is  a  beauti¬ 
ful  phenomenon,  and  of  a  middle  species  between  the  pla¬ 
netary  nebulae  and  nebulous  stars. 

Sir  John  Herschel,  during  his  late  residence  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  is  said  to  have  discovered  several  new  and  singu¬ 
lar  objects  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  some  of  them  bearing 
a  certain  relation  to  the  objects  now  described;  among  others, 
he  is  said  to  have  detected  a  beautiful  planetary  nebula,  which 
presents  a  perfectly  sharp,  well-defined  disk  of  uniform  bright¬ 
ness,  exhibiting  the  exact  appearance  of  a  small  planet  with  a 
satellite  near  its  margin.  The  regular  compactness  and  globu¬ 
lar  form  of  such  objects  seem  to  indicate  that  they  are  bodies 
sui  generis ,  neither  collections  of  distinct  stars  nor  exactly  of 
the  same  nature  with  the  other  masses  of  nebulous  matter 
dispersed  through  the  heavens.  They  seem  to  present  a  view 
of  an  immense  system  already  completed,  but  of  what  nature 


NEBULA  OF  ORION. 


179 


it  would  be  vain  to  conjecture.  Another  phenomenon  of  this 
kind  is  stated  as  being  of  an  extraordinary  nature,  on  account 
of  the  blue  colour  which  its  light  exhibits.  He  has  likewise 
discovered  a  close  double  star  involved  in  the  centre  of  a 
nebulous  atmosphere,  which  is  considered  as  a  new  and  sin¬ 
gular  object. 

Section  IV. — On  the  Nebula  in  Orion . 

One  of  the  largest  and  most  remarkable  nebulse  in  the  hea¬ 
vens  is  that  which  is  found  in  the  constellation  of  Orion. 
When  a  common  observer  looks  at  that  constellation,  the  first 
object  that  arrests  his  attention  is  the  three  brilliant  stars  equi¬ 
distant  from  each  other  in  a  straight  line,  which  is  called  the 
belt  of  Orion.  Immediately  below  these,  hanging  down  as  it 
were  from  the  middle  of  the  belt,  three  small  stars  at  nearly 
equal  distances  are  perceived,  which  are  termed  the  sword. 
On  directing  the  naked  eye  to  the  middle  star  of  the  three,  the 
observer  perceives  something  that  has  the  appearance  of  a 
small  star,  but  not  well  defined ;  this  is  the  great  nebula  of 
Orion ;  of  which,  however,  he  can  form  no  definite  concep¬ 
tion  till  his  eye  be  assisted  by  optical  instruments.  With  a 
common  one-foot  pocket  achromatic  telescbpe  the  nebulosity 
may  be  plainly  perceived  ;  but  the  higher  the  magnifying 
power,  and  the  larger  the  aperture  of  the  object  glass,  the 
more  brilliant  and  distinct  does  this  phenomenon  appear, 
along  with  a  number  of  small  stars  connected  with  it,  which 
are  quite  invisible  to  the  unassisted  eye. 

The  first,  who  discovered  this  phenomenon  was  the  cele¬ 
brated  Huygens,  who  gave  the  following  description  of  it  in 
his  Systemci  Saturnium  : — •“  Astronomers  place  three  stars 
close  to  each  other  in  the  sword  of  Orion  ;  and  when  I  viewed 
the  middlemost  with  a  telescope  in  the  year  1656,  there  ap¬ 
peared,  in  the  place  of  that  one,  twelve  other  stars ;  among 
these,  three  that  almost  touch  each  other,  and  four  more  be¬ 
sides  appeared  twinkling  as  through  a  cloud,  so  that  the  space 
about  them  seemed  much  brighter  than  the  rest  of  the  hea¬ 
vens,  which  appearing  wholly  blackish,  by  reason  of  the  fair 
weather,  was  seen  as  through  a  certain  opening,  through 
which  one  had  a  free  view  into  another  region  which  was 
more  enlightened.  I  have  frequently  observed  the  same  ap¬ 
pearance  in  the  same  place  without  any  alteration ;  so  that  it 
is  likely  that  this  wonder,  whatever  it  may  be  in  itself,  has 
been  there  from  all  times ;  but  I  never  took  notice  of  any 
thing  like  it  among  the  rest  of  the  fixed  stars.”  * 


180  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  NEBULiE  IN  ORION. 

Fig.  72  exhibits  a  view  of  this  phenomenon  as  seen  by  Dr. 
Long  in  1741  with  a  seventeen-feet  refracting  telescope,  which 
appears  exactly  the  same  shape  as  originally  delineated  by 
Huygens ;  but  the  apparent  magnitudes  of  the  stars  connected 
with  it  are  more  accurately  shewn  than  in  the  engraved  de- 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  NEBUL2E  IN  ORION.  1S1 

lineation  of  Huygens.  Dr.  Long  says  that  the  luminous 
epace  has  sometimes  appeared  to  him  nearly  of  the  same 
shape  as  the  figure  which  is  formed  by  the  seven  stars  within 
it.  Fig.  73  represents  the  same  nebula,  as  seen  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel  in  the  year  1774  and  in  1811.  Its  shape  appears 
considerably  different  from  the  delineations  of  Huygens  and 
Dr.  Long ;  but  the  stars  within  and  around  it,  which  are  com¬ 
mon  to  both  delineations,  appear  nearly  in  the  same  relative 
positions.  Sir  John  Herschel  has  given  a  representation  of 
this  nebula,  as  viewed  through  the  twenty-feet  reflector  at 
Slough,  which  appears  considerably  different  from  the  figures 
to  which  I  have  referred.  I  have  frequently  viewed  this  phe¬ 
nomenon  with  telescopes  of  different  sizes,  particularly  with  a 
six  feet  and  a  half  achromatic,  having  an  aperture  of  four 
inches  diameter,  and  which  shewed  sidereal  objects  with 
great  brilliancy  and  distinctness;  but  the  shape  of  the  object 
appeared  more  nearly  resembling  Dr.  Long’s  representation 
(fig.  72)  than  any  other  delineation  I  have  seen.  A  fourth 
star  was  distinctly  seen  in  addition  to  the  three  represented  by 
Dr.  Long  near  the  head  of  the  opening,  but  smaller  than  the 
other  three,  and  forming  with  them  a  small  irregular  square. 
The  three  other  stars,  instead  of  being  within  the  one  side  of 
the  nebula,  as  represented  in  both  the  figures,  appeared  quite 
beyond  it,  but  nearly  in  a  line  with  its  margin.  Whether  this 
was  owing  to  the  inaccuracy  of  the  delineation  or  to  the  actual 
change  of  the  nebula  I  do  not  pretend  to  determine.  The  left- 
hand  branch  of  the  nebula  likewise  appeared  considerably 
longer  than  here  represented ;  but  I  cannot  pretend  to  say 
what  the  appearance  may  be  as  seen  through  a  twenty-feet 
reflecting  telescope. 

In  forming  a  proper  conception  of  this  object,  it  is  of  some 
importance  to  ascertain  the  exact  appearance  it  has  presented 
at  different  periods,  and  whether  there  be  reason  to  conclude 
that  it  has  been  subject  to  changes.  The  following  is  Sir  J. 
Herschel’s  description  of  this  phenomenon  : — 

a  I  know  not  how  to  describe  it  better  than  by  comparing 
it  with  a  curdling  liquid,  or  a  surface  strewed  over  with  flocks 
of  wool,  or  to  the  breaking  up  of  a  mackerel  sky,  when  the 
clouds  of  which  it  consists  begin  to  assume  a  cirrous  appear¬ 
ance.  It  is  not  very  unlike  the  mottling  of  the  sun’s  disk, 
only,  if  I  may  so  express  myself,  the  grain  is  much  coarser 
and  the  intervals  darker,  and  the  fiocculi,  instead  of  being  gene¬ 
rally  round,  are  drawn  into  little  wisps.  They  present,  how¬ 
ever,  an  appearance  of  being  composed  of  stars,  and  their 
aspect  is  altogether  different  from  that  of  resolvable  nebulae 
Vol.  VIII.  16 


182  DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  NEBUL2E  IN  ORION. 

Ill  the  latter  we  fancy  by  glimpses  that  we  see  stars,  or  that 
could  we  strain  our  sight  a  little  more  we  would  see  them ; 
but  the  former  suggests  no  idea  of  stars,  but  rather  of  some¬ 
thing  quite  distinct  from  them.” 

The  following  are  some  of  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  remarks  on 
this  nebula,  and  on  the  stars  with  which  it  is  connected  : — 

“  In  the  year  1774,  the  4th  of  March,  I  observed  the  nebu¬ 
lous  star  which  is  the  43rd  of  the  Connoissance  des  Temps ,  and 
is  not  many  minutes  north  of  the  great  nebulae ;  but  at  the 
same  time  I  also  took  notice  of  two  similar,  but  much  smaller, 
nebulous  stars,  one  on  each  side  of  the  large  one,  and  at  nearly 
equal  distances  from  it.  (»§ee  fig.  73,  &c.)  In  1783, 1  examined 
the  nebulous  star,  and  found  it  to  be  faintly  surrounded  with 
a  circular  glory  of  whitish  nebulosity,  faintly  joining  it  to  the 
great  nebulae.  About  the  latter  end  of  that  year,  I  remarked 
that  it  was  not  equally  surrounded,  but  most  nebulous  towards 
the  south.  In  1784,  I  began  to  entertain  an  opinion  that  the 
star  was  not  connected  with  the  nebulosity  of  the  great  nebulae 
of  Orion,  but  was  one  of  those  which  are  scattered  over  that 
part  of  the  heavens.  In  1801,  1806,  and  1810,  this  opinion 
was  fully  confirmed  by  the  gradual  change  which  happened 
in  that  great  nebulae  to  which  the  nebulosity  surrounding  the 
star  belongs  ;  for  the  intensity  of  light  about  the  nebulous  star 
had  by  this  time  been  considerably  reduced  by  the  attenuation 
or  dissipation  of  the  nebulous  matter,  and  it  seemed  now  to 
be  pretty  evident  that  the  star  is  far  behind  the  nebulous  mat¬ 
ter,  and  that  consequently  its  light  in  passing  through  it  is 
scattered  and  deflected  so  as  to  produce  the  appearance  of  a 
nebulous  star.”  ....  “When  I  viewed  this  interesting  object 
in  December,  1810,  I  directed  my  attention  particularly  to  the 
two  nebulous  stars  by  the  sides  of  the  large  one,  and  found 
they  were  perfectly  free  from  every  nebulous  appearance, 
which  confirmed  not  only  my  former  surmise  of  the  great 
attenuation  of  the  nebulosity,  but  also  proved  that  their  former 
nebulous  appearance  had  been  entirely  the  effect  of  the  passage 
of  their  feeble  light  through  the  nebulous  matter  spread  out 
before  them.  The  19th  of  January,  1811,  I  had  another  cri¬ 
tical  examination  of  the  same  object,  in  a  very  clear  view, 
through  the  forty-feet  telescope;  but  notwithstanding  the 
superior  light  of  this  instrument,  I  could  not  perceive  any 
remains  of  nebulosity  about  the  two  small  stars,  which  were 
perfectly  clear,  and  in  the  same  situation  where  about  thirty- 
seven  years  before  I  had  seen  them  involved  in  nebulosity. 
If,  then,  the  light  of  these  three  stars  is  thus  proved  to  have 
undergone  a  visible  modification  in  its  passage  through  the 


MAGNITUDE  OP  THE  NEBULA!  IN  ORION. 


183 


nebulous  matter,  it  follows  that  its  situation  among  the  stars 
is  less  distant  from  us  than  the  largest  of  the  three,  which  I 
suppose  to  be  of  the  eighth  or  ninth  magnitude.  The  furthest 
distance,  therefore,  at  which  we  can  place  the  faintest  part  of 
the  great  nebula  in  Orion,  to  which  the  nebulosity  surrounding 
the  star  belongs,  cannot  well  exceed  the  region  of  the  stars 
of  the  seventh  or  eighth  magnitude.” 

From  these  observations  it  would  appear  that  the  nebulosi¬ 
ties  connected  with  the  great  nebula  are  subject  to  certain 
changes,  and  that  its  distance  from  our  system  is  less  than 
that  of  stars  of  the  eighth  magnitude,  since  a, portion  of  the 
nebulous  matter  interposes  between  our  sight  and  stars  of  this 
description.  But  this  distance  must  be  very  great.  If  stars 
of  the  eighth  magnitude  are  to  be  considered  at  an  average  as 
eight  times  further  distant  than  those  of  the  first,  then  this 
nebula  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  less  than  320,000,000,000,000, 
or  three  hundred  and  twenty  billions  of  miles  from  the  earth. 
If  its  diameter  at  this  distance  subtend  an  angle  of  ten  minutes, 
which  it  nearly  does,  its  magnitude  must  be  utterly  inconceiv¬ 
able.  It  has  been  calculated  that  it  must  exceed  2,000,000, 
000,000,000,000,  or  two  trillions  of  times  the  dimensions  of 
the  szm,  vast  and  incomprehensible  as  these  dimensions  are. 

This  nebula  has  never  yet  been  resolved  into  stars  by  the 
highest  powers  of  the  telescope  that  have  yet  been  applied ; 
nor  is  there  any  reason  to  believe  that  it  consists  of  a  system 
of  stars,  as  is  the  case  with  many  other  nebulae  which  appear 
much  smaller,  and  are  evidently  more  distant.  It  is  therefore, 
in  all  probability,  a  mass  of  self-luminous  matter  not  yet 
formed  into  any  system  or  systems,  but  of  what  nature  it 
would  be  vain  to  conjecture.  Whether  it  is  more  condensed 
than  when  it  was  first  observed  nearly  two  hundred  years 
ago,  as  some  have  conjectured,  or  whether  any  portions  of  it 
have  shifted  their  position,  as  seems  to  have  been  the  opinion 
of  Sir  W.  Herschel  from  the  observations  above  stated,  appears 
on  the  whole  somewhat  uncertain.  On  this  point  Sir  J. 
Herschel  makes  the  following  remark  : — “  Several  astrono¬ 
mers,  on  comparing  this  nebula  with  the  figures  of  it  handed 
down  to  us  by  its  discoverer,  Huygens,  have  concluded  that 
its  form  has  undergone  a  perceptible  change ;  but  when  it  is 
considered  how  difficult  it  is  to  represent  such  an  object  dffiy, 
and  how  entirely  its  appearance  will  differ  even  in  the  same 
telescope,  according  to  the  clearness  of  the  air,  or  other  tem¬ 
porary  causes,  we  shall  readily  admit  that  we  have  no  evidence 
of  change  that  can  be  relied  on.” 


1S4  REFLECTIONS  ON  THE  NEBUL2E  IN  ORION. 

The  phenomenon  we  have  now  been  contemplating  is  cal¬ 
culated  to  suggest  a  train  of  reflections  and  inquiries — What 
is  the  grand  design  in  the  system  of  nature  of  such  an  im¬ 
mense  mass  of  luminosity — a  mass  of  luminous  matter  to 
which  the  whole  solar  system  is  but  only  as  a  point — a  mass 
at  least  twenty-nine  millions  of  times  larger  than  a  globe 
which  ivould  fill  the  orbit  of  TJranus  f*  Is  it  in  a  state  of 
perfection  completely  answering  the  ultimate  end  of  its  crea¬ 
tion,  and  will  it  remain  for  ever  in  that  state  ?  Or,  is  it  only 
a  chaotic  mass  of  materials  progressing  towards  some  glo¬ 
rious  consummation  in  the  future  ages  of  eternity,  when 
worlds  and  systems  will  be  evolved  from  the  changes  and 
revolutions  now  going  forward  within  its  boundaries  ?  Or, 
may  we  suppose  that  a  luminosity  of  so  vast  extent  serves 
the  purpose  of  a  thousand  suns  to  ten  thousands  of  opaque 
globes  which  revolve  within  its  wide  circumference  ?  Consi¬ 
dering  the  diversified  methods  of  Divine  operation,  and  the 
vast  variety  of  modes  by  which  worlds  are  arranged  and  en¬ 
lightened,  it  is  not  impossible,  nor  even  improbable,  that  nu¬ 
merous  worlds  may  be  in  this  way  illuminated  with  a  perpe¬ 
tual  and  uninterrupted  day.  As  there  appear  to  be  worlds 
connected  with  one  sun,  with  two,  with  three,  and  even  more 
suns,  so  there  may  be  thousands  of  worlds  cheered  and  illu¬ 
minated  without  such  a  sun  as  ours,  and  with  an  effulgence 
of  light  which  is  common  to  them  all.  But  on  these  points 
we  shall  never  be  able  to  arrive  at  certainty  so  long  as  we  so¬ 
journ  in  this  sublunary  sphere.  Suffice  it  to  say,  that  such 
an  enormous  mass  of  luminous  matter  was  not  created  in 
vain,  but  serves  a  purpose  in  the  divine  arrangements  corres¬ 
ponding  to  its  magnitude  and  the  nature  of  its  luminosity,  and 
to  the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  Him  whose  power  brought 
it  into  existence.  It  doubtless  subserves  some  important  pur¬ 
poses,  even  at  the  present  moment,  to  worlds  and  beings  within 
the  range  of  its  influence.  Were  we  placed  as  near  it  as 
one-half  the  distance  of  the  nearest  star,  great  as  that  distance 
is,  from  such  a  point  it  would  exhibit  an  effulgence  approxi¬ 
mating  to  that  of  the  sun ;  and  to  beings  at  much  nearer  dis¬ 
tances  it  would  fill  a  large  portion  of  the  sky,  and  appear  with 
a  splendour  inexpressible.  But  the  ultimate  design  of  such 
an  object,  in  all  its  bearings  and  relations,  may  perhaps  re¬ 
main  to  be  evolved  during  the  future  ages  of  an  interminable 
existence;  and,  like  many  other  objects  in  the  distant  spaces 
of  creation,  it  excites  in  the  mind  a  longing  desire  to  behold 


*  See  page  177. 


NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS.  IS 

the  splendid  and  mysterious  scenes  of  the  universe  a  little 
more  unfolded. 

Section  V. — On  the  Nebular  Hypothesis 

I  have  already  stated  that  the  nebulae  may  be  arranged  into 
two  classes,  the  resolvable  and  irresolvable.  When  Sir  W. 
Herschel  commenced  his  observations  on  the  nebulous  part 
of  the  heavens,  and  for  several  years  afterwards,  he  was  dis¬ 
posed  to  consider  the  nebulae  in  general  to  be  no  other  than, 
clusters  of  stars  disguised  by  their  very  great  distance ;  but  a  long 
experience  and  better  acquaintance  with  the  nature  of  nebula) 
convinced  him  that  such  a  principle  ought  not  to  be  univer¬ 
sally  admitted,  although  a  cluster  of  stars  may  undoubtedly 
assume  a  nebulous  appearance  when  it  is  too  remote  for  us  to 
discern  the  stars  of  which  it  is  composed.  When  he  perceived 
that  additional  light  had  no  effect  in  resolving  certain  nebulas 
into  stars,  he  was  forced  to  the  conclusion,  that  though  milky 
nebulae  may  contain  stars,  yet  there  are  also  nebulosities 
which  are  not  composed  of  them,  nor  immediately  connected 
with  them. 

Hence  astronomers  have  been  constrained  to  admit  the  ex¬ 
istence  of  a  certain  species  of  fine  luminous  matter,  distinct 
from  stars,  or  planets,  or  any  other  materials  existing  around 
us,  which  is  diffused  in  immense  masses  throughout  the  spaces 
of  the  universe.  The  large  nebula  in  Orion,  described  above, 
is  considered  as  one  of  the  most  striking  evidences  that  such 
a  substance  is  distributed  throughout  the  sidereal  regions  ;  for 
the  whole  light  and  power  of  HerschePs  forty-feet  telescope, 
though  four  feet  in  aperture,  was  insufficient  to  resolve  it  into 
stars,  although  from  certain  circumstances  it  appears  to  be  one 
of  the  nearest,  as  it  is  one  of  the  brightest,  of  those  nebulous 
masses.  It  has  therefore  become  a  subject  of  interesting  in¬ 
quiry,  “  What  are  those  huge  masses  of  unformed  matter  we 
call  the  nebulae  ?  and  what  purposes  do  they  serve  in  the 
economy  of  creation  ?” 

It  is  an  opinion  now  very  generally  entertained,  that  the 
self-luminous  matter  to  which  we  refer  is  the  chaotic  materials 
out  of  which  new  suns  or  worlds  may  be  formed,  and  that  it 
is  gradually  concentrating  itself  by  the  effect  of  its  own  gra¬ 
vity,  and  of  the  circular  motions  of  which  it  may  be  suscepti¬ 
ble,  into  denser  masses,  so  as  ultimately  to  effect  the  arrange¬ 
ment  and  establishment  of  sidereal  systems.  It  is  argued  that 
this  opinion  is  highly  probable,  from  the  consideration  that 
we  find  the  nebulae  in  almost  every  stage  of  condensation , 

16* 


186 


NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS. 


Such  nebulae  as  are  represented  in  Figures  59  and  62  are 
viewed  as  consisting  of  nebulous  matter  in  its  rudest  and  most 
chaotic  state ;  and  Figures  63,  64,  65,  and  also  Figures  66, 
67,  68,  as  similar  matter  in  a  state  of  progress  towards  con¬ 
densation.  The  four  figures  marked  71  are  considered  as 
specimens  of  this  gradual  condensation,  in  which  the  progress 
may  be  traced  from  the  left-hand  figure  to  the  right.  It  has 
even  been  maintained  by  some  late  writers  on  this  subject  that 
this,  in  all  probability,  is  the  mode  in  which  the  different  sys¬ 
tems  of  the  universe  were  gradually  brought  into  the  state  in 
which  we  now  behold  them,  and  that  the  sun  and  planets  of 
the  system  to  which  we  belong  derived  their  origin  from  a 
similar  cause ;  and  it  has  likewise  been  attempted  to  connect 
the  geological  changes  in  the  structure  of  our  globe  with  the 
operation  of  a  principle  or  law  by  which  such  a  thin  filmy 
substance  as  a  nebula  was  condensed  into  such  a  heterogene¬ 
ous  mass  of  solidity  as  we  find  in  the  constitution  of  the  terra¬ 
queous  globe ;  and  it  has  been  insinuated  that  the  zodiacal 
light  is  a  portion  of  the  original  nebula  of  which  the  sun  and 
planets  were  formed,  and  a  presumptive  evidence  that  the 
nebular  hypothesis  is  true.  According  to  these  theorists,  the 
sun  is  still  to  be  considered  as  a  nebulous  star  in  a  high  state 
of  condensation,  and  may  exhibit  such  an  appearance  when 
viewed  from  a  neighbouring  system. 

Such  conclusions,  to  say  the  least,  are  obviously  premature. 
We  know  too  little,  in  the  meantime,  of  the  nature  of  that 
nebulous  matter  which  is  dispersed  through  the  heavens,  or 
of  the  motions  with  which  its  particles  may  be  endued,  to  be 
able  to  determine  its  susceptibility  of  being  condensed  and 
arranged  into  suns  and  planets.  We  have  never  yet  seen  the 
same  nebula  progressing  from  one  stage  of  condensation  to 
another,  from  a  chaotic  to  a  state  of  organization ;  nor  is  it 
likely  we  ever  shall,  even  supposing  the  hypothesis  to  be  well 
founded,  as  an  indefinite  number  of  years,  or  even  of  ages, 
must  be  requisite  before  such  a  revolution  can  be  accomplished. 
Yet  the  observations  of  future  astronomers  on  this  depart¬ 
ment  of  the  sidereal  heavens  may  tend  to  throw  some  addi¬ 
tional  light  on  this  mysterious  subject. 

It  forms  no  conclusive  argument,  however,  against  this  hy¬ 
pothesis  that  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  a  fluid  of  a  nature 
so  apparently  rare  can  ever  be  condensed  to  the  hardness  of  a 
planet  or  a  sun ;  for  if  we  suppose  a  nebulosity  in  its  most 
diffused  state  to  be  twenty  minutes  in  diameter,  and  to  be 
compressed  by  central  attraction  and  rotary  motion  till  it  be¬ 
come  only  one  minute  in  diameter,  the  ratio  of  its  density  in 


HEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS* 


187 


the  latter  state  compared  with  that  of  the  former  would  be  as 
eight  thousand  to  one,  since  spheres  are  to  each  other  as  the 
cubes  of  their  diameters.  Suppose  its  density  in  the  first  state 
were  equal  to  that  of  atmospheric  air ;  its  density,  when  com- 
pressed  in  the  proportion  supposed,  would  be  nine  times 
heavier  than  water,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  weight  of  sil¬ 
ver,  and  twice  the  average  density  of  our  globe;  but  if  such  a 
process  be  going  on  in  any  of  these  bodies,  numerous  ages 
must  elapse  before  such  a  consolidation  can  be  effected,  for  no 
sensible  change  appears  to  have  taken  place  during  the  period 
in  which  such  bodies  have  come  under  our  observation. 

Nor  do  we  conceive  that  this  hypothesis  is  inconsistent 
with  what  we  know  of  the  attributes  and  operations  of  the 
Almighty ;  for  all  tire  movements  and  changes  going  on  in 
our  terrestrial  system  and  throughout  the  universe  are  the 
effects  of  certain  laws  impressed  upon  matter  by  the  hand  of 
the  Creator,  by  the  uniform  operation  of  which  his  wise  and 
beneficent  designs  are  accomplished.  If,  then,  it  forms  a  part 
of  his  designs  that  new  suns  and  systems  shall  be  formed  to 
diversify  the  spaces  of  immensity,  and  if  he  has  created  huge 
masses  of  subtle  luminous  matter,  and  endued  them  with  cer¬ 
tain  gravitating  powers  and  rotary  motions  for  this  purpose, 
his  almighty  agency  and  infinite  wisdom  may  be  as  clearly 
and  magnificently  displayed  in  this  case  as  if  a  system  of 
worlds,  completely  organized,  were  to  start  into  existence  in 
a  moment.  Perhaps  the  gradual  evolution  of  his  designs  in 
such  a  case  might  afford  matter  of  admiration  and  enjoyment 
to  certain  orders  of  superior  beings  who  are  privileged  to  take 
a  near  view  of  such  stupendous  operations.  But  supposing 
such  physical  processes  going  forward,  we  must  necessarily 
admit  that  a  direct  interference  of  the  Deity  is  necessary  be¬ 
fore  such  worlds ,  after  being  organized,  can  he  replenished 
with  inhabitants ;  for  matter  and  motion,  by  whatever  laws 
they  may  be  directed,  cannot  be  supposed  to  produce  the 
organization  of  a  plant  or  an  animal,  much  less  of  a  rational 
being,  whose  intellectual  principle  and  faculties  must  be  com¬ 
municated  by  the  immediate  u  inspiration  of  the  Almighty.” 
To  suppose  otherwise  would  be  virtually  to  adopt  a  species 
of  atheism. 

All  that  we  require  on  this  point  is  some  more  direct  and 
decisive  proofs  of  the  validity  of  the  hypothesis  we  are  now 
considering ;  and  till  such  proofs  be  elicited  we  are  not  war¬ 
ranted  to  enter  into  particular  speculations,  and  to  speak  with 
so  much  confidence  on  the  subject  as  certain  theorists  have 
lately  done.  Sir  John  Herschel,  who  has  paid  more  attention 


1S5 


NEBULAR  HYPOTHESIS. 


to  this  subject,  and  made  more  accurate  observations  on  this 
nebulae,  than  almost  any  other  individual,  is  far  from  being 
confident,  and  speaks  with  becoming  hesitation  and  modesty 
in  relation  to  this  hypothesis.  “  If  it  be  true,”  says  he,  “that 
a  phosphorescent  or  self-luminous  matter  exists,  disseminated 
through  extensive  regions  of  space  in  the  manner  of  a  cloud 
or  fog, — now  assuming  capricious  shapes  like  actual  clouds 
drifted  by  the  wind,  and  now  contracting  itself  like  a  cometie 
atmosphere  around  particular  stars — what,  we  naturally  ask, 
is  the  nature  and  destination  of  this  nebulous  matter  ?  Is  it 
absorbed  by  the  stars  in  whose  neighbourhood  it  is  found  to 
furnish,  by  its  condensation,  their  supply  of  light  and  heat  ? 
or  is  it  progressively  concentrating  itself  by  the  effect  of  its 
own  gravity  into  masses,  and  so  laying  the  foundation  of  new 
sidereal  systems  or  of  insulated  stars  ?  It  is  easier  to  'pro - 
pound  such  questions  than  to  offer  any  probable  reply  to  them. 
Meanwhile,  appeal  to  fact,  by  the  method  of  constant  and 
diligent  observation,  is  open  to  us ;  and  as  the  double  stars 
have  yielded  to  this  style  of  questioning,  and  disclosed  a 
series  of  relations  of  the  most  intelligible  and  interesting 
description,  we  may  reasonably  hope  that  the  assiduous  study 
of  the  nebulae  will  ere  long  lead  to  some  clearer  understand¬ 
ing  of  their  intimate  nature.” 

On  the  whole,  the  nebulae,  whether  resolvable  or  irresolv 
able,  open  to  view  an  inexhaustible  field  of  contemplation 
and  wonder.  By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  nebulae  are  un¬ 
doubtedly  clusters  of  stars,  some  of  them  perhaps  containing 
as  many  millions  as  our  Milky  Way,  and  occupying  a  space 
in  the  tracts  of  immensity  which  imagination  can  never 
fathom ;  but  a  considerable  proportion  of  these  bodies  evi¬ 
dently  appear  to  be  masses  of  self-luminous  substances,  with¬ 
out  any  indication  of  being  formed  into  organized  systems ; 
and  how  enormous  must  be  the  extent  of  most  of  those 
masses,  and  how  vast  the  regions  of  space  which  they  fill ! 
If  every  one  of  those  bodies  be  only  one-half  the  size  of  the 
great  nebula  in  Orion,  what  a  prodigious  mass  of  matter  must 
they  contain,  and  what  an  immense  space  must  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  them  occupy !  To  limited  minds  such  as  ours, 
such  spaces  appear  as  approximating  to  infinity ,  and  all  our 
previous  ideas  of  the  amplitude  of  planetary  systems  sink 
into  something  approaching  to  inanity.  Whatever  purposes 
these  immense  masses  of  matter  may  serve  under  the  admi¬ 
nistration  of  Infinite  Wisdom,  certain  it  is  they  exist  not  in  vain. 
They  accomplish  designs  worthy  of  the  plans  of  Divine  In¬ 
telligence,  and  have  doubtless  a  relation,  in  one  respect  or 


LIS^T  OF  NEBULiE. 


189 


another,  to  the  enjoyments  of  intelligent  beings;  but  the  full 
development  of  the  plans  and  agencies  of  the  Deity  in  this 
and  in  many  other  parts  of  the  economy  of  the  universe, 
must  be  considered  as  reserved  for  another  and  a  future  scene 
of  existence. 

Section  VI. — List  of  some  of  the  Larger  Nebulae. 

For  the  sake  of  those  who  wish  to  inspect  some  of  the 
nebulous  bodies  by  means  of  telescopes,  I  have  subjoined  the 
following  list  from  Messier’s  Catalogue,  along  with  the  more 
recent  observations  of  Sir  W.  Herschel.  The  right  ascen- 
sions  and  declinations  are  given  in  degrees  and  minutes,  by 
which  the  places  of  these  bodies  may  be  very  nearly  found 
on  a  celestial  globe.  If  it  be  judged  expedient  to  reduce  the 
degrees  and  minutes  of  right  ascension  to  /ime,  it  may  be 
done  by  the  following  rules  : — Divide  the  number  of  degrees 
by  15,  the  quotient  is  hours ;  and  the  remainder  reduced  to 
minutes,  and  divided  by  15,  gives  the  minutes,  Sic.  of  time  : 
or,  multiply  the  given  number  of  degrees  and  minutes  by 
4,  and  divide  the  degrees  in  the  product  by  60,  the  quotient 
is  hours,  and  the  remainder  minutes,  Sic.  Thus,  320°  17' 
is  equal  to  21  hours,  21  minutes,  and  8  seconds  of  time. 

In  the  following  list,  R.  A.  means  right  ascension ;  dec., 
declination;  S.,  south;  N.,  north;  diam.,  diameter  of  the 
object,  which  is  expressed  in  minutes  of  a  degree. 

1.  R.A.  80°  O'  33";  dec.  N.  21°  45'  27";  above  the  Bull’s 

southern  horn  west  of  the  star  £ :  this  consists  of  a 
whitish  light,  elongated  like  the  flame  of  a  taper  :  it  ex¬ 
hibited  a  mottled  nebulosity  to  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

2.  R.A.  320°  17' ;  dec.  S.  1°  47' ;  diam.  4J ;  in  the  head  of 

Aquarius,  near  the  24th  star  :  it  appears  like  the  nucleus 
of  a  comet,  surrounded  with  a  large  round  nebula  :  Sir 
W.  Herschel  resolved  it  into  stars. 

3.  R.A.  202°  5V  19"  ;  dec.  N.  29°  32'  57" ;  diam.  3' ;  be¬ 

tween  Arcturus  and  Cor  Caroli:  it  is  round,  bright  in  the 
centre,  and  fades  away  gradually  :  it  exhibited  a  mottled 
nebulosity  to  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

4.  R.A.  242°  16'  26" ;  dec.  S.  25°  55'  40" ;  diam.  2T ;  near 

fLntares  :  a  mass  of  stars. 

5.  R.A.  226s  39';  dec.  N.  2°  57';  diam.  3';  near  6  Sep- 

pent  :  a  round  nebula,  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W 
Herochel. 


190  LIST  OP  NEBULA. 

6.  R.A.  261°  10'  39";  dec.  S.  32°  10'  34";  diam.  15';  be¬ 

tween  the  bow  of  Sagittarius  and  the  tail  of  Scorpio :  a 
mass  of  small  stars. 

7.  R.A.  264°  30'  24" ;  dec.  S.  34°  40'  34" ;  diam.  30' :  a  mass 

of  small  stars  near  the  preceding. 

8.  R.A.  267°  29'  30";  dec.  S.  24°  21';  diam.  30';  between  the 

bow  of  Sagittarius  and  the  right  foot  of  Ophiuchus  :  an 
elongated  mass  of  stars.  Near  this  mass  is  the  9th  of 
Sagittarius,  which  is  encircled  with  a  faint  light. 

9.  R.A.  256°  20 p;  dec.  S.  18°  13'  26";  diam.  3';  in  the  right 

leg  of  Ophiuchus  :  round  and  faint,  but  resolved  by  Sir 
W.  Ilerschel  into  stars. 

10.  R.A.  251°  12'  6";  dec.  S.  30°  42';  diam.  4';  in  the  gir¬ 
dle  near  30  Ophiuchus  :  a  fine  and  round  nebula,  resolved 
into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

11.  R.A.  279°  35'  43";  dec.  S.  6°  31';  diam.  4';  near  K  An- 
tinous  :  a  mass  of  many  stars,  mixed  with  a  faint  light. 

12.  R.A.  248°  43';  dec.  S.  2°  30|';  diam.  3';  between  the 
arm  and  left  side  of  Ophiuchus  :  round  and  faint :  near  it 
is  a  star  of  the  ninth  magnitude :  resolved  into  stars  by 
Sir  W.  Herschel. 

13.  R.A.  248°  18'  48";  dec.  N.  36°  54' 44";  diam.  6';  in  the 
girdle  of  Hercules,  between  two  stars  of  the  eighth  mag¬ 
nitude  :  round,  and  bright  in  the  middle,  resolved  into 
stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

14.  R.A.  261°  18|';  dec.  S.  3°  5' 45";  diam.  7';  in  the  dra¬ 
pery  over  the  right  arm  of  Ophiuchus :  round  and  faint : 
near  a  star  of  the  ninth  magnitude  :  resolved  into  stars  by 
Sir  W.  Herschel. 

15.  R.A.  319°  40';  dec.  N.  10°  40';  diam.  3';  between  the 
head  of  Pegasus  and  that  of  the  Little  Horse  :  round, 
and  bright  in  the  centre,  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel. 

16.  R.A.  271°  15';  dec.  N.  13°  51'  44";  diam.  8' ;  near  the  Ser¬ 
pent’s  tail  •  a  mass  of  small  stars,  mixed  with  a  faint  light, 
resolved  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

17.  R.A.  271°  45'  48";  dec.  S.  16°  14'  44";  diam.  5';  north 
of  the  bow  of  Sagittarius :  a  train  of  faint  light,  with 
stars. 

18.  R.A.  271°  34';  dec.  S.  17°  13';  diam.  5';  above  the  pre¬ 

ceding  :  a  mass  of  small  stars,  surrounded  with  nebu¬ 
losity. 

19.  R.A.  252°  1'  45" ;  dec.  S.  25°  54'  46";  diam.  3';  between 
Scorpio  and  the  right  foot  of  Ophiuchus  :  round,  and  re¬ 
solved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 


LIST  OF  NEBULAE. 


191 


20.  R.A.  267°  4'  5";  dec.  S.  22°  59'  10";  between  the  bow 
of  Sagittarius  and  right  foot  of  Ophiuchus  :  a  mass  of 
stars  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  magnitudes,  surrounded  with 
nebulosity. 

21.  R.A.  267°  31' 35";  dec.  S. 22°  31' 25";  diam.6';  near  11 
Sagittarius :  similar  to  the  preceding. 

22.  R.A.  275°  28'  39";  dec.  S.  24°  6'  11";  diam.  15';  near 
25  Sagittarius  :  round,  and  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel. 

23.  R.A.  265°  42'  50";  dec.  S.  18°  45'  55";  diam.  1°  30'; 
near  65  Ophiuchus :  a  mass  of  stars  very  near  each 
other. 

24.  R.A.  270°  26';  dec.  S.  18°  26';  near  end  of  the  bow 
of  Sagittarius  in  the  Milky  Way :  great  nebulosity  con¬ 
taining  several  stars,  the  light  is  divided  into  several 
parts. 

25.  R.A.  274°  25';  dec.  S.  19°  5';  diam.  10';  near  preceding, 
near  21  Sagittarius  :  a  mass  of  small  stars. 

26.  R.A.  278°  5'  22";  dec.  S.  9°  38'  14";  diam.  2';  near  n 
and  o  Antinous  :  a  mass  of  small  stars. 

27.  R.A.  297°  21'  41";  dec.  N.  22°  4'  ;  diam.  4';  near  14  of 

the  F ox :  oval :  it  exhibited  a  mottled  nebulosity  to  Sir 
W.  Herschel. 

28.  R.A.  272°  29|';  dec.  S.  24°  57';  diam.  2';  a  degree  from 
k  Sagittarius :  round,  and  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel. 

29.  R.A.  303°  54  J' ;  dec.  N.  37°  12' ;  below  y  Cygni :  a  mass 
of  seven  or  eight  small  stars. 

30.  R.A.  321°  46';  dec.  S.  24°  19';  diam.  2';  near  41  Capri¬ 
corn  :  round,  and  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

31.  R.A.  7°  26|';  dec.  N.  39°  9|';  diam.  40';  in  Andromeda’s 

girdle  :  it  resembles  two  cones  of  light  joined  at  their 
base,  which  is  15'  broad  :  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W, 
Herschel. 

32.  R.A.  7°  27 1';  dec.  N.  38°  45^';  diam.  2';  below  the  pre¬ 
ceding  :  round,  without  stars,  and  with  a  faint  light. 

33.  R.A.  20°  9';  dec.  N.  29°  32|';  diam,  15';  below  the  head 

of  the  North  Fish  and  the  Great  Triangle  :  its  light  is 
uniform  and  whitish  :  it  exhibited  a  mottled  nebulosity 
to  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

34.  R.A.  36°  51|';  dec.  N.  41°  39|';  diam.  15';  between 
Medusa’s  head  and  the  left  foot  of  Andromeda  :  a  mass 
of  small  stars. 

35.  R.A.  88°  40';  dec.  N.  24°  33 |' ;  diam.  20';  near  /x  and  ^ 
Castor :  a  mass  of  small  stars  near  Castor’s  left  foot. 


192 


BIST  OP  NEBULiE. 


36.  R.A.  80°  11'  42";  dec.  N.  34°  8'  6";  diam.  9';  near  f 
Bootes :  a  mass  of  small  stars. 

37.  R.A.  84°  15' ;  dec.  N.  32°  12' ;  near  the  preceding :  a  mass 
of  small  stars,  with  a  nebulosity,  resolved  into  stars  by 
Sir  W.  Herschel. 

38.  R.A.  78°  10^;  dec.  N.  36°  12';  near  a  Aurigae :  a  square 
mass  of  stars. 

39.  R.A.  320°  57' ;  dec.  N.  47°  2 5' ;  diam.  15' ;  near  the 
Swan’s  tail :  a  mass  of  small  stars. 

40.  R.A.  182°  45 1' ;  dec.  N.  59°  24';  diam.  1°;  at  the  root 
of  the  Great  Bear’s  tail :  two  stars,  very  near  each 
other. 

41.  R.A.  98°  58';  dec.  S.  20°  33';  below  Sirius  :  a  mass  of 
small  stars. 

42.  R.A.  80°  59'  40";  dec.  S.  5°  34'  6";  diam.  6';  between  9 
and  c  in  Orion’s  sword :  a  beautiful  nebula  containing 
seven  small  stars. 

43.  R.A.  81°  3';  dec.  S.  5°  26'  37";  above  the  preceding:  a 
star  surrounded  with  nebulosity. 

44.  R.A.  126°  50^';  dec.  S.  20°  31|';  between y and 5  Cancer: 
a  mass  of  small  stars. 

45.  R.A.  53°  27'  4";  dec.  N.  23°  22'  41";  the  Pleiades:  a 
cluster  of  stars. 

46.  R.A.  112°  47'  43";  dec.  S.  14°  19';  between  the  Great 
Dog’s  head,  and  the  hind  feet  of  the  Unicorn :  a  mass  of 
stars  with  a  little  nebulosity. 

47.  R.A.  116° 4';  dec.  S.  14°  50';  near  the  preceding:  a  mass 
*  of  small  stars. 

48.  R.A.  120°  36';  dec.  S.  1°  16'  42";  near  the  three  stars  at 
the  root  of  Unicorn’s  tail :  a  mass  of  small  stars. 

49.  R.A.  184°  26'  58";  dec.  N.  9°  16'  9";  near  P  Virgo. 

50.  R.A.  102°  571';  dec.  S.  7°  57'  42";  above  9  Great  Dog: 
a  mass  of  small  stars  below  Unicorn’s  right  thigh. 

51.  R.A.  200°  5'  48";  dec.  N.  48°  24'  24";  below  v  Great 
Bear,  near  the  ear  of  the  Northern  Greyhound  :  double  : 
the  two  atmospheres,  whose  centres  are  4'  35"  distant, 
touch  one  another,  and  are  bright  in  the  middle  ;  the  one 
is  fainter  than  the  other  :  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel, 

52.  R.A.  348°  39|'  dec.  N.  60'  22" ;  below  d  Cassiopeia  :  a 
mass  of  stars  mixed  with  a  nebulosity,  according  to  Sir 
W.  Herschel :  this  cluster  appears  like  a  solid  ball, 
consisting  of  small  stars,  quite  compressed  into  one 
blaze  ot  light,  with  a  great  number  of  loose  ones  sur¬ 
rounding  it. 


LIST  OF  NEBULAE. 


193 


53.  R.A.  195°  30|';  dec.  N.  19°  22' 44";  near  42  Berenice’s 
hair :  round,  and  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Her- 
schel. 

54.  R.A.  280°  13';  dec.  S.  30°  44';  diam.  6';  in  Sagittarius  : 
faint,  and  bright  in  the  centre. 

55.  R.A.  291°  30^';  dec.  S.  31°  26|';  in  Sagittarius:  a  white 
spot,  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

56.  R.A.  287°;  dec.  N.  29°  48';  near  the  Milky  Way,  faint, 
resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

57.  R.A.  281°  20';  dec.  N.  32°  46';  between  y  and  /3  Lyrse  : 
round,  and  consisting  of  a  mottled  nebulosity. 

58.  R.A.  136°  37J';  dec.  N.  13°  2'  42";  in  Virgo:  very  faint, 
without  any  star. 

59.  R.A.  187°  41'  38'  ;  dec.  N.  12°  52J';  near  the  preceding: 
very  faint,  without  any  star. 

60.  R.A.  188°  7' ;  dec.  N.  12°  46' ;  in  Virgo :  brighter  than 
the  two  preceding. 

61.  R.A.  182°  41';  dec.  N.  5°  12';  in  Virgo:  very  faint 

62.  R.A.  251°  48  J;  dec.  S.  29°  45J';  in  Scorpio:  like  a 
comet,  with  a  brilliant  centre  surrounded  with  a  faint 
light :  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

63.  R.A.  196°  5|';  dec.  N.  43°  12  J' ;  in  the  Canes  Vena- 
tici :  very  faint. 

64.  R.A.  191°  27'  38";  dec.  N.  22°  52J' ;  in  Berenice’s  hair: 
faint. 

65.  R.A.  166°  51' ;  dec.  N.  14°  16' ;  in  the  Lion :  faint,  but 
resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

66.  R.A.  167°  11'  39";  dec.  N.  14°  12'  21";  very  near  the 
preceding :  very  faint,  but  resolved  into  stars  by  Sir  W. 
Herschel. 

67.  R.A.  129°  7' ;  dec.  N.  12°  36'  38" ;  below  the  northern 
claw  of  the  Crab:  a  mass  of  stars  with  nebulosity.  It 
is  a  cluster  pretty  much  compressed,  in  which  Sir  W. 
Herschel  has  observed  200  stars  at  once  with  a  power  of 
157.  (See  p.  150.) 

68.  R.A.  186°  54|';  dec.  S.  25°  30|';  diam.  2';  below  the 
Crow  :  very  faint. 

69.  R.A.  274°  11'  46"  ;  dec.  S.  32°  31'  45";  diam.  2';  below 
the  left  arm  of  Sagittarius :  faint,  like  the  nucleus  of  a 

smaH 

70.  R.A.  277°  13';  dec.  S.  32°  31';  diam.  2';  near  the  pre¬ 
ceding,  near  four  telescopic  stars. 

71.  R.A.  295°  59'  9"  ;  dec.  N.  18°  13' ;  diam.  3'  30" ;  between 
y  and  5  of  the  Arrow :  very  faint,  and  resolved  into  stars 
by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

Vol.  VIII. 


17 


i94 


LIST  OF  TvTEBXJLJE. 


72.  R.A.  310°  20'  49";  dec.  S.  13°  20'  51";  diam.  2';  above 
the  tail  of  Capricorn  :  faint,  but  resolved  into  stars  by 
Sir  W.  Herschel. 

73.  R.A.  311°  43';  dec.  S.  13°  28'  40";  near  the  preceding: 
three  or  four  small  stars,  containing  a  little  nebulosity. 

74.  R.A.  21°  14';  dec.  N.  14°  39'  35";  near  rj  in  the  string 
that  connects  the  Fishes  :  very  faint,  but  resolved  into 
stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

75.  R.A.  298°  17'  24";  dec.  S.  22°  32'  23";  between  Sagit¬ 
tarius  and  the  head  of  Capricorn :  composed  of  small 
stars  with  nebulosity.  The  astronomer  Mechain  makes 
it  only  nebulous. 

76.  R.A.  22°  10'  47" ;  dec.  N.  50°  28'  48" ;  diam.  2' ;  in 
Andromeda’s  right  foot :  composed  of  small  stars  with 
nebulosity,  small  and  faint. 

77.  R.A.  37°  521' .  dec.  S.  57'  43" ;  in  the  Whale :  a  mass 
of  stars  containing  nebulosity. 

78.  R.A.  83°  53|';  dec.  S.  1'  23";  diam.  3';  in  Orion:  a  mass 
of  stars  with  two  bright  nuclei,  surrounded  with  a  ne¬ 
bulosity. 

79.  R.A.  78°  49' ;  dec.  S.  24°  43" ;  below  the  Hare :  a  fine 
nebula,  bright  in  the  centre,  and  a  little  diffused,  resolved 
into  a  mottled  nebulosity  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

80.  R.A.  241°;  dec.  S.  22°  25';  diam.  2';  between  y  and  5 
Scorpio :  round,  and  bright  in  the  centre,  like  a  comet. 

81.  R.A.  144°  27'  44"  ;  dec.  N.  70°  7'  24";  near  the  ear  of 
the  Great  Bear :  a  little  oval,  bright  in  the  centre,  and 
exhibiting  a  mottled  nebulosity  to  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

82.  R.A.  144°  29'  22"  ;  dec.  N.  70°  44'  27"  ;  near  the  pre¬ 
ceding:  faint  and  elongated,  with  a  telescopic  star  at  its 
extremity :  it  shewed  a  mottled  nebulosity  to  Sir  W. 
Herschel. 

S3.  R.A.  201°  8';  dec.  S.  2S°  42 ;  near  the  head  of  the 
Centaur:  very  faint. 

84.  R.A.  183°  30|';  dec.  N.  14°  7';  in  Virgo  :  bright  in  the 
centre,  and  surrounded  with  nebulosity. 

85.  R.A.  183°  35'  21";  dec.  N.  19°  24J';  above  and  near 
Spica:  very  faint. 

86.  R.A.  183°  46'  21";  dec.  N.  14°  10';  in  Virgo:  the  same 
as  No.  84,  and  near  it. 

87.  R.A.  184°  56' ;  dec.  N.  13°  38' ;  in  Virgo :  as  luminous 
as  the  preceding. 

88.  R.A.  185°  46';  dec.  N.  15°  38' ;  in  Virgo:  very  faint, 
and  like  No.  58. 


LIST  OF  NEBULiE.  195 

89.  R.A.  186°  9'  36" ;  dec.  N.  13°  46'  49" ;  near  No.  87 : 
very  faint. 

90.  R.A.  186°  27';  dec.  N.  14°  23' ;  in  Virgo  :  very  faint. 

91.  R.A.  186°  37';  dec.  N.  14°  57';  above  the  preceding’ 
fainter  than  the  preceding. 

92.  R.A.  257°  38' ;  dec.  N.  43°  22' ;  diam.  5' ;  between  the 
knee  and  left  leg  of  Hercules :  a  beautiful  nebula,  bright 
in  the  centre,  and  surrounded  with  great  nebulosity :  re¬ 
solved  into  stars  by  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

93.  R.A.  113°  48'  35";  dec.  S.  23°  19' 45";  diam.  8';  be¬ 
tween  the  Great  Dog  and  the  Ship:  a  mass  of  small 
stars. 

94.  R.A.  190°  10'  46";  dec.  N.  42°  18' 43";  diam.  2J;  above 
Cor  Caroli :  bright  in  the  centre,  with  a  diffused  nebulo¬ 
sity. 

95.  R.A.  158°  3'  5";  dec.  N.  12°  50'  21";  in  the  Lion,  above 

l :  very  faint. 

96.  R.A.  1*58°  46 J' ;  dec.  N.  12°  58' ;  near  the  preceding : 
fainter  than  the  preceding. 

97.  R.A.  165°  18'  40";  dec.  N.  56°  13 J;  diam.  2';  near  j3 
Great  Bear :  very  faint :  another  near  it,  and  another 
near  y. 

98.  R.A.  180°  50'  49" ;  dec.  N.  16°  8'  15" ;  above  the  north 
wing  of  Virgo  :  very  faint. 

99.  R.A.  181°  55'  19";  dec.  N.  15°  37'  12";  on  the  north 

wing  of  Virgo  :  brighter  than  the  preceding:  between 
two  stars  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  magnitude. 

100.  R.A.  182°  59'  19";  dec.  N.  16°  59'  21";  in  the  ear  of 
corn  of  Virgo  :  brighter  than  No.  98. 

101.  R.A.  208°  52';  dec.  N.  55°  24'  25";  diam.  7' ;  between 
the  left  hand  of  Bootes  and  the  tail  of  the  Great  Bear : 
very  faint :  discovered  by  Mechain :  mottled  nebulosity, 
according  to  Sir  W.  Herschel. 

102.  Between  o  Bootes  and  i  Draconis  :  very  faint :  discovered 
by  Mechain. 

]  03.  Between  e  and  6  Cassiopeia  :  a  mass  of  stars. 


196 


ABERRATION  OF  FIXED  STARS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

ON  THE  ABERRATION  OF  THE  STARS,  AND  ON  THEIR  PROPER 

MOTIONS. 

The  aberration  of  the  fixed  stars  is  a  small  change  of  place 
in  the  heavens  which  they  seem  to  undergo,  and  by  which 
they  appear  to  describe,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  an  ellipsis  or 
circle,  the  greatest  diameter  of  which  is  about  forty  seconds. 
This  remarkable  fact  was  discovered,  near  the  middle  of  the 
last  century,  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bradley,  formerly  Regius 
Professor  of  Astronomy  at  Greenwich. 

In  Chapter  IV.,  when  describing  the  mode  of  finding  the 
parallaxes  of  the  fixed  stars,  I  have  given  a  brief  detail  of  the 
circumstances  which  led  to  this  discovery,  and  the  observa¬ 
tions  from  which  the  aberration  of  the  stars  was  deduced. 
Before  perusing  the  following  illustrations  of  this  subject,  it 
may  not  be  improper  for  the  reader  to  reperuse  what  was 
there  stated  in  reference  to  this  point,  particularly  the  illus¬ 
tration  of  this  phenomenon  given  in  the  description  of  Fig.  7, 
(p.  56,  57.)  It  is  there  stated  that  Dr.  Bradley  and  his  friend 
Mr.  Molyneaux  were  very  much  perplexed  at  the  result  of 
their  observations  ;  since,  instead  of  observing  a  motion  indi¬ 
cating  an  annual  parallax,  they  found  a  result  directly  opposite 
to  what  they  expected.  Many  theories  and  conjectures  were 
proposed  to  solve  the  appearances,  but  nothing  satisfactory 
was  elicited,  till  one  day,  when  Dr.  Bradley  was  enjoying  the 
amusement  of  sailing  about  on  the  Thames,  he  observed  that 
every  time  the  boat  tacked,  the  direction  of  the  wind,  esti¬ 
mated  by  the  direction  of  the  vane,  seemed  to  change.  This 
immediately  suggested  to  him  the  cause  of  the  phenomenon 
which  had  so  much  perplexed  him,  and  he  ultimately  found 
it  to  be  an  optical  illusion  occasioned  by  a  combination  of  the 
motion  of  light  with  the  motion  of  his  telescope  while  ob¬ 
serving  the  polar  stars — a  discovery  of  no  inconsiderable  im¬ 
portance,  and  which  will  immortalize  the  name  of  this  saga¬ 
cious  and  indefatigable  astronomer.  He  perceived  that,  if 
light  is  propagated  in  time,  the  apparent  place  of  a  fixed  ob¬ 
ject  will  not  be  the  same  when  the  eye  is  at  rest,  as  when  it 
is  moving  in  any  other  direction  than  that  of  the  line  passing 
through  the  eye  and  the  object;  and  that,  when  the  eye  is 


ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT.  197 

moving  in  different  directions,  the  apparent  place  of  the  object 
will  be  different. 

We  see  an  object  in  consequence  of  the  rays  of  light  proceed¬ 
ing  from  it  striking  our  eyes,  and  we  see  the  place  of  the  ob¬ 
ject  in  the  direction  in  which  they  'proceed.  If  light  be  in 
motion  and  the  eye  at  rest,  the  object  will  appear  in  its  real 
place,  provided  no  refracting  medium  intervene ;  but  if  the 
eye  be  in  motion,  and  this  motion  in  a  different  direction  from 
that  of  the  rays  of  light,  the  object  will  not  be  seen  in  its  true 
position.  Let  us  suppose  the  earth  in  its  circuit  round  the 
sun  just  arrived  opposite  to  a  fixed  star,  which  sends  off  rays 
perpendbicularly  to  the  direction  of  the  earth’s  motion.  The 
eye  of  the  spectator  meets  the  ray,  and,  as  he  perceives  not 
his  own  motion,  he  supposes  the  light  to  be  moving  in  a  dif¬ 
ferent  direction ;  as  when  we  sail  along  a  winding  river,  cer¬ 
tain  objects  on  the  banks  appear  to  pass  by  us  in  different 
directions.  The  eye  misses  the  perpendicular  ray,  but  meets 
an  oblique  one,  and  thence  receives  the  impression  of  the  light 
in  the  direction  which  results  from  this  compound  motion — 
namely,  in  the  diagonal  of  a  parallelogram,  the  sides  of  which 
represent  the  real  motion  of  light.  The  spectator  sees  the 
star  in  its  true  place  only  when  he  is  approaching  it  or  receding 
from  it  in  a  straight  line.  When  moving  in  any  other  direc¬ 
tion,  the  star  appears  a  little  in  advance  of  its  true  position ; 
and  these  apparent  changes  in  the  situation  of  the  heavenly 
bodies,  occasioned  by  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  are 
distinguished  by  the  aberration  of  light.  They  are  common, 
to  a  certain  extent,  to  all  the  celestial  orbs,  and  are  only  more 
perceptible  and  striking  in  the  case  of  the  fixed  stars.  In 
consequence  of  this  aberration  during  the  revolution  of  the 
earth  round  the  sun,  the  stars  appear,  according  as  they  are 
situated  in  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  or  in  its  poles,  or  some¬ 
where  between  them,  in  the  first  case,  to  deviate  in  a  straight 
line  to  the  right  or  left  of  their  true  place ;  in  the  second,  to 
describe  a  circle,  or  something  nearly  approximating  to  it; 
and  in  the  third,  an  ellipse  about  that  point  which  observation 
determines  to  be  their  real  situation. 

This  subject  requires  a  little  degree  of  attention  in  order  to 
a  clear  understanding  of  it.  Perhaps  the  following  illustra¬ 
tions  may,  in  some  measure,  render  it  plain  to  the  general 
reader. 

Suppose  A  J5,  in  the  following  figure,  to  represent  a  part  of 
the  orbit  of  the  earth,  and  C  B  a  ray  of  light  descending  from  a 
star  upon  the  earth’s  orbit,  A  B ;  if  the  eye  be  at  rest  at  j 8,  the 
object  will  appear  in  the  direction  B  C ;  but  if  the  eye  be  moving 

17* 


198  ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT  ILLUSTRATED. 

from  A  towards  i?,  and  light  be  propagated  with  a  velocity 
that  is  to  the  velocity  of  the  eye  (or  of  the  earth’s  motion)  as 
C  B  to  BA,  that  particle  of  it  by  which  the  object  will  be 
discerned  when  the  eye  comes  to  B  will  be  at  C  when  the 
eye  is  at  A ;  the  star,  therefore,  will  appear  in  the  direction 
AC;  and  as  the  earth  moves  through  the  equal  parts  of  its 
orbit,  A  H,  HI ,  IK \  &c.,  the  light  coming  from  the  star  will 
move  through  the  equal  divisions  C  d,  de,  ef,  fg ,  g  B ,  and 
the  star  will  appear  successively  in  the  directions  if  1,  f  2,  K  3, 
JL  4,  B5,  which  are  parallel  to  AC;  so  that  when  the  eye 
comes  to  U,  the  object  will  be  seen  in  the  direction  B5. 


Fig.  74. 

5  4  3  2  1  C 


The  following  is  an  explanation  of  this  phenomenon  as 
given  by  Sir  John  Herschel.  Suppose  a  shower  of  rain  to  fall 
perpendicularly  in  a  dead  calm ;  a  person  exposed  to  the 
shower  who  should  stand  quite  still  and  upright  would  re¬ 
ceive  the  drops  on  his  hat,  which  would  thus  shelter  him ; 
but  if  he  rail  forward  in  any  direction  they  would  strike  him 
in  the  face.  The  effect  would  be  the  same  as  if  he  remained 
still,  and  a  wind  should  arise  of  the  same  velocity  and  drift 
them  against  him.  Suppose  a  ball  to  fall  from  a  point  A  (fig. 


ABERRATION  OF  LIGHT  ILLUSTRATED. 


199 


75)  above  an  horizontal  line  E  F,  and  that  at  B  were  placed 
to  receive  it  the  open  mouth  of  an  inclined  hollow  tube 
P  Q;  if  the  tube  were  held  immovable,  the  ball  would  strike 


Fig.  75. 


on  its  lower  side ;  but  if  the  tube  were  carried  forward  in  the 
direction  E  F  with  a  velocity  properly  adjusted  at  every  in¬ 
stant  to  that  of  the  ball,  while  preserving  its  inclination  to  the 
horizon ,  so  that  when  the  ball  in  its  natural  descent  reached 
C,  the  tube  should  have  been  carried  into  the  position  R  <S,  it 
is  evident  that  the  ball  would,  throughout  its  whole  descent, 
be  found  in  the  axis  of  the  tube;  and  a  spectator,  referring  to 
the  tube  the  motion  of  the  ball,  and  carried  along  with  the 
former  unconscious  of  its  motion,  would  fancy  that  the  ball 
had  been  moving  in  the  inclined  direction  R  $  of  the  tube’s 
axis.  Our  eyes  and  telescopes  are  such  tubes.  The  earth  is 
moving  through  space  with  a  velocity  of  nineteen  miles  per 
second  in  an  elliptic  path  round  the  sun,  and  is  therefore 
changing  the  direction  of  its  motion  at  every  instant.  Light 
travels  with  a  velocity  of  192,000  miles  per  second,  which, 
although  much  greater  than  that  of  the  earth,  is  yet  not  infi¬ 
nitely  so.  Time  is  occupied  by  it  in  traversing  any  space,  and  in 
that  time  the  earth  describes  a  space,  which  is  to  the  former  as  19 


2  00 


CONCLUSIONS  DEDUCED  FROM 


to  192,000,  or  as  the  tangent  of  20".5  to  radius.  Suppose, 
now,  APS  to  represent  a  ray  of  light  from  a  star  at  A,  and 
let  the  tube,  P  Q,  be  that  of  a  telescope  so  inclined  forward 
that  the  focus  formed  by  its  object  glass  shall  be  received 
upon  its  cross  wire,  it  is  evident,  from  what  has  been  said, 
that  the  inclination  of  the  tube  must  be  such  as  to  make  P  S : 
S  Q::  velocity  of  light  :  velocity  of  the  earth  :  :  tangent 
20^":  1 ;  and  therefore  the  angle  S  P  Q,  or  P  $  P,  by  which 
the  axis  of  the  telescope  must  deviate  from  the  true  direction 
of  the  star,  must  be  20  f . 

The  aberration  of  the  stars  has  also  been  illustrated  by  the 
direction  in  which  a  gunner  points  his  gun  at  a  bird  on  the 
wing.  Instead  of  levelling  it  exactly  at  the  bird,  he  directs  it 
a  little  before  the  bird  in  the  path  of  its  flight,  and  so  much 
the  more  in  proportion  as  the  flight  of  the  bird  is  more  rapid 
compared  with  that  of  the  shot.  It  may  likewise  be  explained 
oy  supposing  a  person  to  be  walking  in  a  shower  of  rain  with 
a  narrow  tube  in  his  hand,  in  which  case  it  is  evident  that  the 
tube  must  have  a  certain  inclination,  so  that  a  drop  of  rain 
which  enters  at  the  top  may  fall  freely  through  it  without 
touching  its  sides ;  which  inclination  must  be  greater  or  less 
according  to  the  velocity  of  the  drops  with  respect  to  the 
tube. 

From  the  discovery  of  the  aberration  of  the  stars  the  fol¬ 
lowing  conclusions,  among  others,  have  been  deduced, — 1. 
That  the  small  apparent  motion  which  the  fixed  stars  have 
about  their  real  places,  arises  from  the  proportion  which  the 
velocity  of  the  earth’s  motion  in  its  orbit  bears  to  that  of  light. 
This  proportion  is  found  to  be  as  1  to  10,310;  or,  in  othei 
words,  light  moves  with  a  velocity  ten  thousand,  three  hun¬ 
dred  and  ten  times  greater  than  that  of  the  earth  in  its  annual 
course  round  the  sun.#  2.  From  this  discovery  it  is  proved 
that  the  velocity  of  light  is  uniform  and  the  same,  whether  as 
emitted  originally  from  the  sun  and  stars,  or  reflected  from  the 
planets.  The  velocity  of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  is  about  68,000 
miles  an  hour ;  consequently,  the  motion  of  light  in  the  same 
time  is  701,0S0,000,  or  a  little  more  than  seven  hundred  mil¬ 
lions,  which  gives  about  eight  minutes  and  eight  seconds  as 
the  time  it  will  take  in  passing  from  the  sun  to  the  earth.j 

*  This  is  the  proportion  of  radius  to  the  tangent  of  twenty  seconds  and 
a  half,  which  is  the  greatest  apparent  displacement  of  the  star  caused  by 
aberration,  and  the  radius  of  the  circle  described  by  the  star  round  its 
real  place  in  the  course  of  a  year. 

t  This  is  found  by  multiplying  10,310  =  the  number  of  times  that  the 
velocity  of  light  exceeds  that  of  the  earth,  by  68,000=  the  rate  of  the 


THE  AB£ilRATION  OF  LIGHT. 


201 


This  is  about  the  same  rate  of  the  motion  of  light  as  first 
determined  byRoemer  from  the  eclipses  of  Jupiter’s  satellites; 
so  that  the  two  discoveries  mutually  harmonize  and  confirm 
each  other,  and  prove  to  a  demonstration  the  progressive  mo¬ 
tion  of  light,  and  that  its  rate  of  motion  is  the  same  whether 
as  emanating  from  the  sun,  reflected  from  the  satellites  of  Ju¬ 
piter,  or  descending  from  the  stars.  3.  The  aberration  of  light 
affects  the  apparent  right  ascensions  and  declinations  of  all 
the  stars.  Its  effect  on  each  particular  star  is  to  make  it  appa¬ 
rently  describe  a  small  ellipse  in  the  heavens,  having  for  its 
centre  the  point  in  which  the  star  would  be  seen  if  the  earth 
were  at  rest.  Hence,  in  all  very  nice  calculations  and  deter¬ 
minations  of  the  positions  of  the  stars,  allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  effects  produced  by  aberration.  4.  The  aberra¬ 
tion  of  light  affords  a  sensible  and  direct  proof  of  the  motion 
of  the  earth  in  its  orbit  round  the  sun.  If  the  earth  were  not 
in  motion,  no  such  effect  as  that  of  the  aberration  of  the  stars 
could  take  place.  If  the  earth  were  at  rest,  rays  from  a  star 
would  pass  along  the  axis  of  a  telescope  directed  to  it ;  but 
were  it  set  in  motion  with  its  present  velocity,  these  rays 
would  strike  against  the  side  of  the  tube,  and  it  would  be  ne¬ 
cessary  to  incline  the  telescope  a  little  in  order  to  see  the  star. 
The  angle  contained  between  the  axis  of  the  telescope  and  a 
line  drawn  to  the  true  place  of  the  star  is  just  what  we  call  its 
aberration ,  which  could  not  take  place  if  the  earth  were  not 
in  motion.  That  the  earth  is  a  planetary  body  moving  through 
the  depths  of  space  along  with  the  other  planets  of  our  sys¬ 
tem  can  be  proved  by  numerous  considerations ;  but  the  fact 
of  the  aberration  of  the  stars  exhibits  this  motion  to  our  senses 
as  clearly  as  if  from  a  fixed  point  in  the  firmament  we  actually 
beheld  it  pursuing  its  course  through  the  etherial  regions ;  so 
that  the  planetary  nature  of  our  globe,  and  the  truth  of  the 
Copernican  system,  are  no  longer  to  be  considered  as  mere 
~  hypotheses,  but  as  facts  susceptible  of  the  strictest  demonstra¬ 
tion. 

On  the  Proper  Motions  of  the  Stars. 

To  the  eye  of  a  common  observer,  all  the  stars  and  con¬ 
stellations  in  the  heavens  appear  to  preserve  the  same  relative 

earth’s  motion  in  an  hour  ;  the  product  is  701,080,000.  This  product  di¬ 
vided  by  60  gives  the  rate  of  motion  in  a  minute  =11,684,666,  Divide 
95,000,000,  the  distance  of  the  sun  from  the  earth,  by  this  last  number, 
and  the  quotient  will  give  eight  minutes  and  nearly  eight  seconds  as  the 
time  light  should  take  in  passing  from  the  sun  to  the  earth. 


202  PROPER  MOTIONS  OF  THE  FIXED  STARS. 


distances  from  each  other;  and  even  astronomers,  not  more 
than  two  centuries  ago  could  perceive  no  separate  motions  or 
variations  in  the  positions  of  these  distant  orbs.  From  this 
circumstance  they  were  denominated  fixed  stars ,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  planets ,  which  were  observed  to  shift  their 
positions,  and  to  move  through  different  parts  of  the  heavens. 
After  the  telescope  was  invented  and  applied  to  astronomical 
instruments,  astronomers  began  to  suspect  that  some  of  the 
stars  had  a  slight  degree  of  proper  motion  or  change  in  their 
relative  position,  but  it  was  a  considerable  time  before  such 
motions  could  be  distinctly  ascertained.  These  motions  first 
began  to  be  observed  by  Dr.  Halley,  and  afterwards  by  Le- 
monnier  and  Cassini,  and  were  completely  confirmed  by 
Tobias  Mayer,  who  compared  the  places  of  eighty  stars  as 
determined  by  Roemer  with  his  own  observations,  and  found 
that  the  greater  part  of  them  had  a  proper  motion.  He  like¬ 
wise  suggested  that  the  change  of  place  he  had  observed 
among  these  stars  might  arise  from  a  progressive  motion  of 
the  sun  towards  one  quarter  of  the  heavens.  La  Lande  de¬ 
duced  a  similar  opinion  from  the  rotary  motion  of  the  sun,  by 
supposing  that  the  same  mechanical  force  which  gave  it  a  mo¬ 
tion  round  its  axis,  would  also  displace  its  centre,  and  give  it 
a  motion  of  translation  in  absolute  space.  Of  the  same  opinion 
was  Sir  W.  Herschel,  and  he  attempted,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  proper  motions  of  all  the  stars  that  had  been  ascertained, 
to  determine  the  point  of  the  heavens  towards  which  the  mo¬ 
tion  of  the  sun  was  directed,  which  he  supposed  was  that  oc¬ 
cupied  by  the  star  Zeta  Herculis. 

If  the  sun  really  have  a  motion  in  absolute  space  directed 
towards  any  particular  quarter  of  the  heavens,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  stars  in  that  quarter  must  appear  to  recede  from  each 
other,  while  those  in  the  opposite  region,  which  the  sun  is 
leaving  behind,  must  seem  gradually  to  approach,  in  the  same 
manner  as  when  we  walk  through  a  forest,  the  ranges  of 
trees  to  which  we  advance  are  constantly  widening  in  their 
apparent  distance  from  each  other,  while  the  distance  of  those 
we  leave  behind  is  gradually  contracting.  It  does  not,  how» 
ever,  appear,  from  the  most  recent  observations,  that  the 
direction  in  which  the  sun  or  planetary  system  is  moving  is 
yet  determined,  although  it  is  admitted  that  our  system  has  a 
motion  in  space,  and  that  the  apparent  proper  motions  of 
some  of  the  stars  may  be  the  result  of  our  being  carried  in  a 
certain  direction  through  absolute  space  by  this  motion.  Such 
a  motion,  and  even  the  direction  of  it,  might  be  detected  by 
such  sidereal  observations  as  those  to  which  we  allude,  if  we 


PROPER  MOTION  OF  THE  STARS. 


203 


knew  accurately  the  apparent  proper  motions  of  those  bodies, 
and  that  they  were  independent  of  any  general  motions  com¬ 
mon  to  all  the  stars  ;  but  in  the  present  stage  of  sidereal 
observation,  it  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  of  the  most 
eminent  astronomers,  that  no  sufficient  data  are  yet  afforded 
for  deducing  definite  conclusions  on  this  subject. 

The  following  table  contains  a  few  specimens  of  the  an¬ 
nual  proper  motions  of  the  stars  in  right  ascension  and 
declination,  in  seconds  and  decimals  of  a  second,  selected 
from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Maskelyne.  The  first  column 
contains  the  name  of  the  star  ;  the  second,  its  magnitude ;  the 
third,  its  annual  proper  motion  in  right  ascension ;  and  the 
fourth,  its  motion  in  declination. 


Names 
of  the  Stars. 

Magnitude. 

Annual  Motion 
in  R.  A. 

Annual  Motion 
in  Dec. 

Capella 

1 

Seconds. 

+  0.21 

Seconds, 
f-  0.44  N. 

Sirius  .  . 

1 

—  0.42 

-  1.04  S. 

Castor 

1 

—  0.15 

-  0.44  S. 

Procyon  . 

1.2 

—  0.80 

p  0.95  S. 

Pollux 

2 

—  0.74 

0.00 

j3  Leonis  . 

1.2 

—  0.57 

-  0.07  S. 

}3  Virginis 

3 

+  0.74 

0.24  S. 

Arcturus  : 

1 

—  1.26 

-  1.72  S. 

Altair  :  : 

1.2 

-p  0.48 

-  0.54  N. 

a  Lyree  : 

1 

+  0.23 

-  0.27  N. 

Antares  : 

1 

0.00 

-  0.26  N. 

In  the  above  table,  the  sign  -f-  prefixed  to  the  annual 
variation  of  right  ascension  indicates  that  the  variation  is  to 
be  added  to,  and  the  sign  —  that  it  is  to  be  subtracted  from, 
the  right  ascension,  to  obtain  the  true  place  of  the  object  at 
any  given  time. 

It  is  found  that  not  only  among  single,  but  even  among 
double  stars  such  motions  exist.  While  revolving  round  each 
other  in  the  manner  formerly  described,  they  are  at  the  same 
time  carried  forward  through  space  with  a  progressive  motion 
common  to  both,  and  without  sensibly  altering  their  distances 
from  each  other.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  of  these  is 
the  double  star  61  Cygni,  formerly  described,  whose  annual 
parallax  and  distance  Professor  Bessel  appears  to  have  lately 
determined.*  The  two  stars  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
nearly  equal  in  apparent  size,  and  they  have  remained  con¬ 
stantly  at  the  same  distance  of  15  seconds  for  at  least  fifty- 
seven  years  past,  or  since  their  positions  began  to  be  accurately 
observed.  The  annual  proper  motion  of  these  two  stars  is 

*  See  chap.  iv.  p.  62,  &c. 


204  PROPER  MOTION  OF  THE  STARS. 

found  to  be  according  to  Bessel,  5".  123;  which  is  the  greatest 
annual  proper  motion  of  any  of  the  stars  which  has  yet  been 
discovered ;  consequently,  during  the  period  now  mentioned, 
they  must  have  shifted  their  local  situation  in  the  heavens  by 
a  space  equal  to  4  minutes,  52  seconds ;  that  is,  a  space  equal 
to  more  than  one-seventh  of  the  apparent  diameter  of  the 
moon.  Such  a  change  of  place  in  bodies  so  immensely  dis¬ 
tant  as  62,000,000,000,000  of  miles  indicates  a  prodigious 
rapidity  of  motion.  u  The  relative  motion  of  these  stars  and 
the  sun,”  says  Bessel,  w  must  be  considerably  more  that  six¬ 
teen*  semi-diameters  of  the  earth’s  orbit that  is,  1,552,000,- 
000  of  miles.  They  must  therefore  move  at  the  rate  of  four 
millions,  two  hundred  and  fifty-two  thousand  miles  a  day, 
and  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven  thousand  miles  every 
hour ;  which  is  6S,000  miles  an  hour  greater  than  the  velo¬ 
city  of  Mercury,  which  is  the  swiftest  moving  body  in  the 
planetary  system.  Here,  then,  we  have  a  system  of  bodies 
of  immense  size  moving  with  amazing  velocity  in  different 
directions  ;  for  as  these  stars  are  doubtless  suns,  and  conse¬ 
quently  have  a' system  of  planets  revolving  round  each,  the 
planets  must  move  round  the  sun  to  which  they  more  imme¬ 
diately  belong,  and  likewise  round  the  other  sun,  or  their 
common  centre  of  gravity,  and  at  the  same  time  they  are  carried 
forward  to  some  distant  region  with  the  velocity  now  stated. 

Among  single  stars,  that  which  is  marked  ^  Cassiopeia,  one 
of  the  smaller  stars  in  that  constellation,  is  remarked  as  hav¬ 
ing  the  greatest  proper  motion  of  any  yet  ascertained.  The 
amount  of  its  annual  motion  is  estimated  at  3|  seconds,  which 
in  the  course  of  a  century  will  amount  to  6  minutes  15  se¬ 
conds,  a  space  in  the  heavens  equal  to  one-fifth  of  the  appa¬ 
rent  diameter  of  the  moon.  If  this  star  be  reckoned  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  earth  as  the  double  star  61  Cygni,  the 
velocity  of  its  motion  every  day  will  be  3,112,000  miles; 
every  hour,  130,000 ;  and  every  minute,  2,160.  The  annual 
proper  motion  of  Arcturus,  in  declination,  is  l;/.72,  which  is 
nearly  one-half  the  motion  of  ^  Cassiopeia ;  and  a  great  many 
others  are  found  by  observation  to  be  constantly  progressing 
through  the  heavens  by  annual  intervals  of  different  degrees 
in  extent,  but  generally  smaller  than  those  stated  above. 
These  changes  of  position  in  the  stars  cannot  be  perceived 
by  the  naked  eye,  and  are  consequently  imperceptible  to  com¬ 
mon  observers ;  and  even  with  the  most  accurate  astronomi¬ 
cal  instruments  some  of  them  cannot  be  determined  until  after 


*  About  16|.  See  p.  64. 


DESTINATION  OF  THE  STARS. 


205 


a  lapse  of  years.  Such  motions  give  us  reason  to  conclude 
that  all  the  bodies  in  the  universe  are  in  perpetual  motion,  and 
many  of  them  acted  upon  by  separate  forces,  which  carry 
them  in  different  directions ;  and  although  some  of  these 
motions  appear  little  more  than  just  perceptible  at  the  im¬ 
mense  distance  at  which  we  are  placed  from  them,  yet  it  is 
probable  that  even  the  slowest  motion  of  any  of  the  stars  is 
not  less  than  at  the  rate  of  several  thousands  of  miles  every 
hour,  indicating  the  operation  of  forces  incomprehensible  by 
the  human  mind. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

ON  THE  DESTINATION  OF  THE  STARS  ;  OR,  THE  DESIGNS 
THEY  ARE  INTENDED  TO  SUBSERVE  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF 
THE  UNIVERSE. 

For  many  ages  during  the  infancy  of  astronomy,  the  stars 
were  considered  chiefly  as  an  appendage  to  the  world  in 
which  we  dwell.  The  crystalline  sphere  in  which  they  were 
supposed  to  be  fixed  was  regarded  as  only  the  canopy  of  man’s 
terrestrial  habitation,  and  the  orbs  with  which  it  is  diversified 
as  so  many  brilliant  spangles  to  adorn  it,  and  to  diffuse  a  few 
glimmering  rays  to  cheer  the  darkness  of  the  night.  This  ce¬ 
lestial  arch,  in  which  the  sun  and  moon  are  also  placed,  was 
supposed  to  revolve  around  us  every  twenty-four  hours,  pro¬ 
ducing  an  alternate  succession  of  light  and  of  darkness,  while 
the  earth,  as  the  centre  of  the  universe,  was  considered  as  re¬ 
maining  in  a  state  of  perpetual  quiescence.  Above  the  visible 
heavens,  where  the  stars  are  placed,  nothing  was  supposed  to 
exist  except  the  throne  of  the  Almighty  and  the  abodes  of 
the  blessed  ;  and  such  are  still  the  contracted  views  of  the 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe  respecting  that  im¬ 
mense  and  glorious  firmament  with  which  we  are  surrounded. 

It  is  true  indeed  that  the  stars,  in  a  certain  subordinate  sense, 
were  intended  for  the  benefit  of  man ;  for  we  actually  derive 
many  advantages  from  their  apparent  motions  and  influence. 
They  present  to  our  view  a  scene  of  beauty  and  magnificence 
which  enchants  the  eye  and  gratifies  the  imagination,  and 
tends  to  raise  the  soul  above  grovelling  pursuits  and  terrestrial 
vanities.  They  cheer  the  shades  of  midnight  and  enable  us 
Vol.  VIIL  18 


206 


DESIGN  FOR  WHICH 


to  prosecute  our  journeys  after  the  sun  has  left  our  hemi¬ 
sphere  ;  without  the  influence  of  whose  light  our  winter  even¬ 
ings  would  be  shrouded  in  impenetrable  darkness,  and  not 
an  object  around  us  could  be  distinguished.  In  the  absence 
of  the  moon  all  would  be  dark,  as  was  chaos  before  light  was 
formed  to  illuminate  creation.  Were  the  light  of  the  starry 
orbs  extinguished,  instead  of  the  grand  and  beautiful  aspect 
now  presented  from  above,  the  firmament  would  appear  only 
like  an  immense  blank,  or  a  boundless  desert,  where  nothing 
would  be  seen  to  stimulate  human  inquiry,  or  to  display  the 
attributes  of  the  Creator.  Those  orbs  are  likewise  of  essential 
service  to  different  departments  of  human  life;  they  serve  as 
guides  to  the  traveller  when  journeying  through  vast  and  un¬ 
frequented  deserts,  and  to  the  mariner  when  conducting  his 
vessel  from  one  country  to  another  through  the  wide  and 
pathless  ocean.  The  Pole-star,  on  account  of  its  apparently 
fixed  position,  has  in  every  age  been  viewed  with  solicitous 
attention  by  the  navigator ;  and  before  the  invention  of  the 
compass  it  was  his  principal  guide  to  direct  his  bark  to  the 
desired  haven.  In  short,  by  means  of  the  stars  we  have  been 
enabled  to  determine  the  exact  length  of  the  day  and  of  the 
year,  the  various  subdivisions  of  time,  the  commencement  and 
termination  of  the  seasons,  the  circumference  of  the  globe,  the 
density  of  its  materials,  and  the  relative  positions  of  places  on 
every  part  of  its  surface ;  all  which  advantages  it  becomes 
man  duly  to  appreciate,  and  with  a  grateful  heart  to  adore  the 
wisdom  and  goodness  of  Him  w  who  made  the  sun  to  rule 
the  day,  and  the  moon  and  stars  to  rule  the  night,”  and 
who  has  rendered  all  his  arrangements  subservient  to  the  hap¬ 
piness  of  his  intelligent  offspring. 

But  although  the  stars  are  of  essential  benefit  to  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  our  globe,  yet  we  ought  not  for  a  moment  to 
imagine  that  this  was  the  chief  and  ultimate  end  for  which 
they  were  brought  into  existence.  We  know  that  they  are 
bodies  of  immense  size,  the  least  of  them  many  thousands  of 
times  larger  than  our  globe.  But  such  a  number  of  magnifi¬ 
cent  globes  were  not  necessary,  in  order  to  shed  a  few  glim¬ 
mering  rays  upon  the  earth  ;  since  the  creation  of  an  additional 
moon  would  diffuse  far  more  light  over  our  world  than  that 
which  descends  to  the  earth  from  all  the  visible  stars  in  the 
firmament.  And  we  know  that  the  Creator  does  nothing  in 
vain.  It  is  the  characteristic  of  infinite  wisdom  to  proportion¬ 
ate  means  to  the  end  intended  to  be  accomplished ;  but  in  this 
case  there  would  be  no  proportion  between  the  means  and  the 
end — between  creating  a  thousand  globes  of  light  of  incalcu- 


THE  STARS  WERE  CREATED. 


207 


lable  magnitude,  and  shedding  a  few  glimmering  rays  to  alle¬ 
viate  the  darkness  of  midnight ;  and  therefore  this  cannot  be 
supposed  the  chief  end  of  their  creation,  without  impeaching 
the  wisdom  and  intelligence  of  Him  w  who  stretched  out  the 
heavens  by  his  understanding.”  Besides,  whatever  might  be 
said  in  reference  to  the  stars  visible  to  the  unassisted  eye,  it 
is  impossible  for  a  moment  to  conceive  that  those  thousands, 
and  ten  thousands,  and  millions  of  stars,  which  are  only  visi¬ 
ble  through  the  most  powerful  telescopes,  and  whose  light 
has  never  yet  reached  our  globe,  could  have  been  created 
merely  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  earth.  Such  a 
supposition  must  be  for  ever  discarded  by  every  one  who 
would  entertain  an  honourable  and  consistent  idea  of  the  ope¬ 
rations  of  infinite  wisdom. 

What,  then,  it  may  be  asked,  is  the  chief  and  ultimate  des¬ 
tination  of  those  magnificent  globes  ?  We  may  answer  in 
general  terms,  that  it  is  a  destination  corresponding  to  the 
magnitude  and  grandeur,  and  the  intrinsic  splendour  of  those 
distant  bodies.  It  is  the  characteristic  of  every  wise  artist 
and  architect,  that  he  selects  the  most  proper  means  to  accom¬ 
plish  the  end  intended,  and  proportionates  every  part  of  a 
machine  or  edifice  to  all  the  other  parts,  so  as  to  produce  a 
harmony  and  unity  of  design.  A  philosophical  instrument- 
maker,  for  example,  in  constructing  an  orrery  does  not  make 
wheels  of  a  hundred  yards  in  diameter  for  carrying  balls  of 
less  than  an  inch  in  diameter  round  a  circle  of  only  six  feet 
in  circumference ;  nor  does  a  watchmaker  employ  two  hun¬ 
dred  wheels  and  pinions  in  the  construction  of  a  timepiece 
when  less  than  a  dozen  may  suffice;  nor  does  an  architect 
make  the  portico  of  an  edifice  five  hundred  times  larger  than 
the  whole  structure.  Were  any  individual  to  act  in  this  man¬ 
ner,  he  would  at  once  be  denounced  as  utterly  destitute  of 
wisdom,  and  viewed  as  a  fool  or  a  maniac.  Now,  we  are  to 
consider  the  Almighty,  in  all  his  arrangements  throughout  the 
universe,  as  acting  on  the  same  general  principle  which  directs 
a  wise  and  intelligent  artist  in  all  his  plans  and  operations ; 
for  wisdom  is  an  essential  attribute  of  the  Divinity,  and  all  his 
works,  when  minutely  inspected,  must  necessarily  display 
this  perfection  to  intelligent  minds.  To  suppose  otherwise, 
to  imagine  for  a  moment  either  that  he  has  not  proportionated 
one  part  of  the  universe  to  another,  or  that  the  greater  part  of 
it  was  created  for  no  use  at  all,  would  be  the  height  of  pro¬ 
fanity  and  impiety,  and  would  rob  the  eternal  Majesty  of  Hea¬ 
ven  of  one  of  the  most  distinguishing  attributes  of  his  nature. 
Bearing  this  principle  in  mind,  we  are  necessarily  led  to  the 


208  STARS  SHINE  BY  THEIR  OWN  NATIVE  LIGHT. 

conclusion, — a  conclusion  as  certain  as  any  mathematical  de¬ 
monstration, — namely,  that  the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants  of 
our  globe  was  not  the  chief  or  ultimate  design  for  which  the 
stars  were  created,  but  that  the  Deity  had  a  higher  and  more 
expansive  design  to  accomplish  in  their  formation.  We  do 
not  pretend  to  fathom  all  the  subordinate  designs  the  Creator 
may  have  had  in  his  view  in  the  creation  of  the  stars,  or  of 
any  other  object;  but  as  he  has  endowed  us  with  rational 
faculties  for  the  investigation  of  his  works,  it  is  evident  that 
he  intended  we  should  be  able  to  discover  some  of  the  main 
and  leading  designs  which  he  intended  to  accomplish  in  the 
formation  of  the  great  bodies  of  the  universe. 

We  therefore  maintain  that  one  of  the  grand  and  leading  de¬ 
signs  of  the  creation  of  the  stars  was,  that  they  should  serve 
as  suns  to  give  light  to  other  worlds  and  systems  with  which 
they  are  more  immediately  connected.  This  proposition  I 
have  all  along  taken  for  granted  in  the  preceding  pages,  and 
shall  now  adduce  a  few  arguments  to  elucidate  and  support  it. 

1.  They  all  shine  by  their  own  native  light.  This  is  the 
peculiar  characteristic  of  a  sun  in  distinction  from  the  plane¬ 
tary  globes,  which  all  shine  with  reflected  light,  derived  from 
the  luminous  centre  around  which  they  revolve.  The  im¬ 
mense  distance  at  which  the  nearest  stars  are  placed  from  our 
globe  is  a  clear  proof  that  they  shine,  not  with  borrowed,  but 
with  inherent  splendour ;  for  reflected  light  from  such  a  dis¬ 
tance  would  be  entirely  dissipated  ere  it  could  reach  our  eyes. 
This  likewise  appears  from  actual  observation,  and  from  a 
comparison  of  the  brilliancy  of  the  fixed  stars  with  that  of  the 
planets,  in  which  there  is  found  a  striking  difference.  Mer¬ 
cury  and  Venus  are  the  two  planets  which  revolve  in  the  im¬ 
mediate  neighbourhood  of  the  sun,  and  consequently  derive 
from  him  a  greater  portion  of  light  than  any  of  the  other 
planets ;  yet  it  is  found  that  the  lustre  of  the  star  Sirius ,  and 
even  that  of  Capella ,  is  much  more  brilliant  than  that  of 
either  Mercury  or  Venus;  and  it  is  demonstrably  certain  that 
both  these  stars  are  situated  far  beyond  the  orbit  of  Uranus ; 
and  therefore,  if  they  derived  their  light  from  the  sun,  they 
behoved  to  be  incomparably  more  obscure  than  any  of  the 
planets.  The  lustre  and  brilliancy  which  the  fixed  stars  ex¬ 
hibit  when  viewed  with  telescopes  of  large  apertures  and 
powers  is  exceedingly  striking.  Sir  W.  Herschel  seldom 
looked  at  the  larger  stars  through  his  forty-feet  telescope,  be¬ 
cause  their  blaze  was  injurious  to  his  sight.  At  one  time, 
after  sweeping  a  portion  of  the  heavens  with  that  instrument, 
he  te  .Is  us  that  u  the  appearance  of  Sirius  announced  itself  at  a 


STARS  ARE  BODIES  OF  IMMENSE  MAGNITUDE.  209 

great  distance  like  the  dawn  of  the  morning,  and  came  on  by 
degrees,  increasing  in  brightness,  till  this  brilliant  star  at  last 
entered  the  field  of  the  telescope  with  all  the  splendour  of  the 
rising  sun,  and  forced  me  to  take  my  eye  from  the  beautiful 
sight.”  These  and  other  circumstances  clearly  shew  that  the 
stars  are  endued  with  native  splendour,  and  are  not  dependent 
on  any  other  luminaries  for  the  brilliancy  they  display,  and 
consequently  are  fitted  to  act  as  suns  for  the  illumination  of 
opaque  globes  with  which  they  are  more  immediately  connected, 

2.  They  are  placed  at  an  immense  distance  from  our  earth 
and  from  one  another,  and  consequently  it  is  impossible  that 
they  could  derive  their  lustre  from  our  sun;  for  the  sun  in  his 
present  situation  could  afford  them  no  more  light  than  a  single 
star  transmits  to  our  globe ;  and  to  some  of  the  more  distant 
stars  his  rays  would  be  altogether  invisible.  And  if  the  sun 
cannot  be  supposed  to  enlighten  any  of  those  orbs,  from  the 
distance  at  which  he  is  placed,  there  is  no  other  body  known 
to  us  whence  their  light  may  be  derived,  if  they  do  not  shine 
with  their  own  native  splendour. 

3.  They  are  todies  of  immense  magnitude.  We  have  already 
shewn, both  from  mathematical  considerations  and  popular  illus¬ 
trations,  that  the  stars  are  unquestionably  at  a  very  great  distance 
from  our  globe,  a  distance  which  is  almost  incomprehensible. 
(Chap.  IV.)  Their  bulk  must  therefore  be  very  great.  If  they 
were  no  larger  than  the  globe  on  which  we  live,  they  would  be 
altogether  invisible,  even  although  they  shine  with  their  own 
native  light.  Few  of  them  can  be  considered  as  much  less 
than  our  sun,  and  the  greater  number  of  them  are  in  all  pro¬ 
bability  much  larger ;  they  are  therefore  fitted  by  their  enor¬ 
mous  size,  and  their  consequent  attractive  power,  to  be  the 
centres  of  systems  of  planetary  worlds,  and  to  diffuse  around 
them  to  an  immense  distance  a  splendid  illumination.  But  it 
would  be  absurd  to  suppose  that  such  a  number  of  vast  lumi¬ 
nous  globes,  placed  at  such  immense  distances  from  each 
other,  and  from  the  earth,  could  have  been  created  solely  for 
the  benefit  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  world  ;  for  it  would  argue 
a  want  of  wisdom  in  not  proportioning  means  to  ends ;  since 
a  single  star  of  the  one-thousandth  part  of  its  present  bulk, 
placed  within  a  million  of  miles  of  the  earth,  would  afford  us 
far  more  light  than  all  the  stars  put  together. 

4.  Were  we  removed  to  the  distance  only  of  the  nearest 
stars,  our  sun  would  appear  no  larger  than  one  of  those 
twinkling  orbs,  and  from  some  of  them  he  would  disappear 
altogether;  at  most,  he  would  appear  only  as  one  of  the  small 
stars  which  deck  the  firmament,  and  probably  one  only  of  tha 

18* 


210  STARS  CONSTITUTE  ALMOST  THE  WHOLE  UNIVERSE. 

fifth  or  sixth  magnitude ;  consequently  all  the  planets  of  our 
system  would  entirely  disappear.  Even  Jupiter  and  Saturn, 
though  each  of  them  is  a  thousand  times  larger  than  the  earth, 
would  be  quite  invisible,  by  reason  of  their  comparative 
smallness  and  their  shining  only  by  reflected  light.  The  sys¬ 
tem  to  which  we  belong  cannot  therefore  be  supposed  to  have 
any  immediate  connexion  even  with  the  nearest  stars  j  and 
these  stars  must  be  considered  as  having  appropriate  purposes 
to  fulfil  in  their  own  immediate  sphere. 

5.  The  stars ,  in  point  of  number,  size  and  splendour,  con¬ 
stitute  almost  the  whole  universe ,  at  least,  so  far  as  it  has  been 
unfolded  to  our  view.  The  bodies  which  compose  the  plane¬ 
tary  system  contain  a  mass  of  solid  matter  about  2480  times 
larger  than  that  of  the  earth,  and  the  sun  is  about  500  times 
greater  than  the  whole  of  them  taken  together.  But  this  sys¬ 
tem,  great  as  it  appears  in  the  eyes  of  mortals,  is  but  as  a 
diminutive  ball,  or  even  as  a  mere  point,  when  compared  with 
the  myriads  of  stars  which  the  firmament  displays,  and  which 
the  telescope  has  brought  to  view.  These  innumerable  globes 
of  light  were  created  for  use — to  subserve  important  purposes 
in  the  plan  of  the  Divine  administration.  They  were  not 
launched  through  the  spaces  of  infinity  at  random,  merely  to 
display  the  energies  of  Omnipotence,  and  to  light  up  the  wilds 
of  immensity  with  a  useless  splendour.  Such  a  supposition 
would  be  derogatory  to  the  attributes  and  character  of  the 
All-wise  Creator,  and  would  distort  all  the  views  we  ought  to 
entertain  of  a  Being  possessed  of  infinite  perfection.  Those 
immense  bodies  must  therefore  be  conceived  as  intended 
chiefly  to  diffuse  their  light  and  splendour  over  worlds  with 
which  they  are  more  immediately  connected,  and  for  the 
ultimate  design  of  communicating  happiness  in  various  forms 
to  the  different  orders  of  beings  with  which  they  may  be  re¬ 
plenished.  What  other  subordinate  ends  they  may  accomplish 
in  the  grand  scheme  of  the  universe,  besides  the  advantages 
we  derive  from  them,  is  beyond  our  province  to  determine. 
It  is  not  improbable,  however,  that  every  star  or  system, 
whether  single,  binary,  or  ternary,  may  have  a  subordinate 
end  to  serve  to  every  other  system,  as  forming  parts  of  one 
whole  under  the  government  of  Infinite  Wisdom.  As  we 
derive  advantages  from  these  orbs,  distant  as  they  are,  and  as 
they  diversify  the  ceiling  of  our  earthly  habitation  with  a 
splendid  decoration,  so  they  will  likewise  adorn  the  firma¬ 
ment  of  other  systems,  and  display  to  the  view  of  their  in¬ 
habitants  both  the  energies  of  Omnipotent  Power  and  the 
manifold  wisdom  of  God. 


FIXED  STARS  ARE  SUNS. 


211 


6.  We  have  some  direct  indications  that  the  fixed  stars  are 
in  reality  suns.  It  forms  no  argument  against  the  idea  of  the 
stars  being  the  centres  of  systems,  that  we  have  hitherto  been 
unable  to  detect  any  of  their  revolving  planets ;  for  unless 
such  planets  be  far  beyond  the  magnitude  of  those  belonging 
to  our  system,  and  unless  their  surfaces  be  fitted  to  reflect  the 
rays  of  light  with  extraordinary  brilliancy,  we  could  not  ex¬ 
pect  them  to  be  visible  at  the  remote  distance  at  which  we 
are  placed,  since  the  stars  themselves  appear  only  as  shining 
points.  But  certain  phenomena  which  have  been  observed, 
chiefly  within  the  last  century,  give  indication  of  the  solar 
nature  of  the  fixed  stars.  In  the  first  place,  there  are  pheno¬ 
mena  which  indicate  that  some  of  them  at  least,  like  our  sun, 
have  a  rotation  round  their  axes.  In  Chapter  VII.  we  have 
given  a  brief  view  of  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars.  One 
of  these,  named  Algol,  is  found  regularly  to  pass  through  a 
change  of  brightness  from  the  second  to  the  fourth  magnitude, 
and  again  to  its  original  brightness  in  two  days  and  about 
twenty-one  hours.  The  star  /3  Lyrae  passes  through  a  pe¬ 
riodic  variation,  from  the  third  the  fifth  magnitude,  in  six 
days  and  nine  hours.  A  star  in  Hercules  varies  its  lustre 
periodically,  in  the  course  of  sixty  days  and  six  hours.  A 
star  in  Sobieski’s  shield  changes  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh 
or  eighth  magnitude,  and  returns  to  its  greatest  brightness,  in 
a  period  of  sixty-two  days.  These  and  many  other  stars 
give  pretty  evident  indications  of  a  rotation  round  their  axes. 
Their  periodic  changes  are  exact  and  regular ;  and,  in  order 
to  account  for  the  phenomena,  we  have  only  to  suppose  that 
one  of  their  hemispheres  is  either  covered  with  large  dark 
spots,  or  is  encompassed  with  a  medium  which  prevents  it 
from  emitting  so  much  light  to  our  eyes  as  the  other,  and 
that  each  hemisphere  is  presented  to  our  view  in  alternate 
succession.  Our  sun,  indeed,  would  not  exhibit  any  sensible 
variation  of  lustre  at  the  distance  of  the  stars,  notwithstand¬ 
ing  some  large  spots  on  his  surface ;  but  we  have  no  reason 
to  conclude  that  the  stars,  although  they  are  all  luminous 
bodies,  are  exactly  alike  in  every  part  of  their  constitution, 
since  variety  appears  to  be  a  characteristic  of  all  the  arrange¬ 
ments  in  the  universe.  The  darker  hemisphere  of  the  stars 
to  which  we  allude  may  produce  a  change  of  illumination, 
which  will  form  an  agreeable  vicissitude  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  worlds  which  roll  around  them,  and  which  may  produce 
an  effect  somewhat  analogous  to  that  which  is  produced  by 
the  alternate  shining  of  a  white  and  a  yellow  sun,  as  in  the 
case  of  some  of  the  double  stars,  (see  pp.  117 — 120.) 


212 


FIXED  STARS  ARE  SUNS. 


Again,  there  are  stars  whose  periods  of  variable  lustre  are 
much  longer  than  those  now  stated.  Some  of  them  pass 
through  their  periodic  changes  in  331  days,  some  in  494 
days,  and  others  not  till  after  the  lapse  of  eighteen  years. 
Such  changes,  at  least  in  some  instances,  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  intervention  of  opaque  revolving  bodies,  or  planets 
of  a  large  size,  passing  directly  between  our  eye  and  the 
stars,  when  revolving  through  that  half  of  their  orbits  which 
lies  next  the  earth.  It  is  almost  certain  that  either  the  one 
or  the  other  of  the  circumstances  now  mentioned  is  the  cause 
which  produces  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars,  and  in  either 
case  a  strong  presumption  is  afforded  of  the  reality  of  other 
planetary  systems.  If  rotation  be  the  cause  of  the  changes 
alluded  to,  the  analogy  between  our  sun  and  the  stars  is 
almost  verified,  for  the  most  eminent  philosophers  have  always 
considered  that  the  rotation  of  an  orb  is  necessarily  connected 
both  with  motion  in  space,  and  with  the  existence  of  revolv¬ 
ing  planets.  If  such  changes  arise  from  the  interposition  of 
opaque  globes,  as  is  highly  probable  in  some  of  the  cases  we 
have  stated,  then  we  have  dirbct  evidence  that  the  stars  are  in 
reality  the  centres  of  systems,  and  that  their  planets  are  con¬ 
structed  on  a  scale  of  magnificence  far  surpassing  that  of  our 
solar  system,  (see  Ch.  VII.  pp.  94 — 96.)  It  is  highly  pro¬ 
bable  that  both  the  causes  to  which  we  have  now  adverted 
operate  in  producing  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars.  Those 
whose  periodic  variations  are  the  shortest  may  be  produced 
by  rotation,  and  those  in  which  years  are  requisite  to  accom¬ 
plish  all  the  changes,  may  arise  from  the  intervention  of  very 
large  opaque  revolving  bodies. 

It  has  been  surmised  by  some  astronomers  that  certain  very 
small  stars  which  accompany  larger  ones  probably  shine  by 
reflected  light.  Sir  John  Herschel,  a  few  years  ago,  called 
the  attention  of  astronomical  observers  to  this  point.  The 
stars  to  which  he  has  requested  particular  attention  are  such 
as  the  following: — i  Ursae  Majoris,  y  Hydrse,  x  Geminorum, 
a  2  Cancri,  a  2  Capricorni,  and  several  others.  Iota  Ursae  is 
a  star  of  the  third  or  fourth  magnitude,  in  the  fore-foot  of  the 
Great  Bear  :  right  ascension,  8h  46'  54! 1 ;  north  declination, 
47°  5V  20ir.  Gamma  Hydrae  is  a  star  of  the  fourth  magni¬ 
tude,  about  thirty-five  degrees  south-east  from  Regulus,  and 
about  twenty-nine  degrees  west  by  south  from  Spica  Virginis  : 
right  ascension  llh  15'  57";  south  declination,  16°  42'. 
j Kappa  Geminorum  is  a  star  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  situated 
about  three  degrees  and  a  half  south  of  Pollux  :  right  ascen¬ 
sion,  7h  33'  38" ;  north  declination,  24°  49'.  The  star  a  2 


IMMENSE  EXTENT  OF  THE  DIVINE  EMPIRE.  213 

Capricorni  is  of  the  third  magnitude,  about  twenty-two  degrees 
south  by  east  of  Altair,  and  about  two  degrees  and  a  half 
north  of  /3  Capricorni,  &c.  It  is  to  the  very  small  and  point 
like  stars  which  accompany  these  that  the  attention  is  to  be 
directed  ;  they  are  minute  points  of  light  which  can  only  be 
perceived  by  telescopes  of  considerable  power.  Some  of 
these  are  suspected  as  shining  with  reflected  light ;  and  if  this 
point  could  be  ascertained,  it  would  form  a  direct  proof  of 
planets  circulating  around  stars  and  enlightened  by  theii 
beams.  We  have  reason  to  hope,  from  the  increase  of  as¬ 
tronomical  observers,  from  the  accuracy  with  which  sidereal 
observations  are  now  conducted,  and  from  the  improvements 
of  which  the  telescope  is  still  susceptible,  that  this  interesting 
fact,  will,  ere  long,  be  determined  by  ocular  demonstration ; 
and  when  such  a  discovery  shall  have  been  made,  the  telescope, 
which  has  already  disclosed  so  many  wonders,  will  then  have 
performed  one  of  its  most  sublime  and  mighty  achievements. 

In  the  meantime,  we  have  no  reason  to  entertain  the  least 
doubt  that  the  stars  are  in  reality  suns  and  the  distributors  of 
light  to  other  worlds  any  more  than  we  ought  to  doubt  of  the 
motion  of  the  earth,  because  we  have  never,  from  a  fixed  point 
in  the  firmament,  beheld  it  wheeling  its  rapid  course  through 
the  etherial  spaces  around  the  sun.  Since  the  stars  cannot, 
with  the  least  show  of  reason,  be  supposed  to  have  been 
created  chiefly  for  the  use  of  our  globe,  it  is  as  certain  as 
moral  demonstration  can  make  it,  that  they  were  principally 
intended  to  fulfd  a  higher  and  a  nobler  pupose,  and  that  this 
purpose  has  a  respect  to  the  accommodation  and  happiness  of 
intelligent  existence,  either  in  the  stars  themselves  or  in  worlds 
which  revolve  around  them  ;  for  the  Creator  and  Governor  of 
the  universe  must  be  considered,  in  all  his  arrangements,  as 
acting  in  perfect  consistency  with  those  perfections  of  his  na¬ 
ture  with  which  he  is  eternally  and  essentially  invested.  But 
to  suppose  the  innumerable  host  of  stars  to  be  only  so  many 
vast  insulated  globes,  hung  up  to  irradiate  the  void  spaces 
of  infinitude,  would  be  repugnant  to  all  the  conceptions  which 
reason  and  revelation  lead  us  to  form  of  a  Being  of  infinite 
perfection. 

If,  then,  the  fixed  stars  are  the  centres  of  light  and  influence 
to  surrounding  worlds,  how  immense  must  that  empire  be 
over  which  the  moral  government  of  the  Almighty  extends  ! — 
how  expansive  the  range,  and  how  diversified  the  order  of 
planetary  systems ! — how  numerous  beyond  calculation  the 
worlds  which  incessantly  roll  throughout  the  immensity  of 
space  !  What  countless  legions  of  intellectual  beings,  of  every 


/ 


214  UNKNOWN  CELESTIAL  BODIES. 

rank  and  capacity,  must  crowd  the  boundless  dominions  of 
the  King  eternal,  immortal,  and  invisible !  and  how  glorious 
and  incomprehensible  must  He  be  whose  word  caused  this  vast 
fabric  to  start  into  existence,  and  who  superintends  every  mo¬ 
ment  the  immensity  of  beings  with  which  it  is  replenished ! 
In  attempting  to  grasp  such  scenes  the  human  mind  is  bewil¬ 
dered  and  overwhelmed,  and  can  only  exclaim, 66  Great  and 

MARVELLOUS  ARE  THY  WORKS,  LORD  God  ALMIGHTY  !” 

“  Seest  thou  those  orbs  that  numerous  roll  above  ? 

Those  lamps  that  nightly  greet  thy  visual  powers 
Are  each  a  bright  capacious  sun  like  ours. 

The  telescopic  tube  will  still  descry 
Myriads  behind  that  ’scape  the  naked  eye, 

And  further  on  a  new  discovery  trace 
Through  the  deep  regions  of  encompassed  space. 

If  each  bright  star  so  many  suns  are  found 
With  planetary  systems  circled  round, 

What  vast  infinitude  of  worlds  may  grace, 

What  beings  people  the  stupendous  space  ? 

Whatever  race  possess  the  etherial  plain, 

What  orbs  they  people,  or  what  ranks  maintain? 

Though  the  deep  secret  heaven  conceal  below, 

One  truth  of  universal  scope  we  know: 

Our  nobler  part,  the  same  etherial  mind, 

Relates  our  earth  to  all  their  reasoning  kind, 

One  Deity,  one  sole  creating  cause, 

Our  active  cares  and  joint  devotion  draws.” 


CHAPTER  XV. 

CN  UNKNOWN  CELESTIAL  BODIES - ON  METEORIC  PHENOMENA 

- AND  ON  SHOOTING  STARS. 

We  are  not  to  imagine  that  we  have  yet  discovered  the 
greater  part  of  the  bodies  which  exist  in  those  spaces  whose 
range  lies  within  the  reach  of  our  telescopes.  All  the  dis¬ 
coveries  which  have  hitherto  been  made  in  the  heavens  have 
been  owing  to  the  light  emitted  by  very  distant  orbs  having 
been  concentrated  on  the  eye  by  the  magnifying  and  space- 
penetrating  power  of  the  telescope ;  but  it  is  not  improbable 
that  there  are  numerous  bodies  within  the  circuit  of  the  visible 
heavens  which  send  forth  no  rays  of  light  susceptible  of  being 
refracted  or  reflected  *to  the  eye  by  our  finest  instruments. 
Some  of  the  largest  bodies  in  the  universe  may  either  be 
opaque  globes,  or  so  slightly  illuminated  that  no  traces  of  their 


UNKNOWN  CELESTIAL  BODIES. 


215 


existence  can  ever  be  perceived  from  the  region  we  now  oc¬ 
cupy.  The  greater  part,  if  not  the  whole,  of  the  orbs  which 
have  been  described  in  the  firmament,  with  the  exception  of 
the  planets  and  comets  of  our  system,  are  globes  which  shine 
with  their  own  inherent  lustre,  without  which  their  existence 
would  have  been  to  us  for  ever  unknown.  We  are  not  warranted 
to  call  in  question  the  existence  of  any  class  of  bodies  merely 
because  our  limited  organs  of  perception  and  our  situation  in 
the  universe  prevent  us  from  perceiving  them.  We  have  never 
yet  beheld  the  planets  which  doubtless  circulate  around  other 
suns,  although  there  can  be  no  question  that  such  bodies  really 
exist ;  and  there  may  be  opaque  globes  of  a  size  incomparably 
larger  than  either  planets  or  suns,  which  may  serve  as  the 
centres  of  certain  systems,  or  for  some  other  important  pur¬ 
poses  to  us  unknown  ;  for  all  that  we  have  yet  explored  of  the 
distant  regions  of  creation  is  but  the  mere  outskirts  of  that 
boundless  empire  which  stretches  out  on  every  hand  towards 
infinity.  It  is  not  unreasonable  to  believe  that  the  number  of 
magnificent  bodies  imperceptible  to  our  organs  of  vision  may 
far  exceed  all  that  we  have  hitherto  discovered  either  by  the 
naked  eye  or  the  telescope,  even  within  the  compass  of  that 
region  which  lies  open  to  human  inspection. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  La  Place,  that  ua  luminous  star  of 
the  same  density  as  the  earth,  and  whose  diameter  should  be 
two  hundred  and  fifty  times  larger  than  that  of  the  sun,  would 
not,  in  consequence  of  its  attraction,  allow  any  of  its  rays  to 
arrive  at  us.”  u  A  star  which,  without  being  of  this  magnitude, 
should  yet  considerably  surpass  the  sun,  would  perceptibly 
weaken  the  velocity  of  its  light,  and  thus  augment  the  extent 
of  its  aberration.”  It  is  therefore  'possible  that  the  largest 
luminous  bodies  in  the  universe,  if  their  internal  structure  be 
composed  of  dense  materials,  would  be  invisible  to  us,  in  con¬ 
sequence  of  their  great  attractive  power  preventing  their  light 
from  reaching  the  system  to  which  we  belong.  In  Chapter 
XII.  I  have  given  a  brief  view  of  the  ideas  entertained  by 
Lambert  respecting  the  arrangement  of  the  universe  into  dis¬ 
tinct  systems  of  stars  which  have  a  more  immediate  connexion 
with  one  another  in  consequence  of  the  law  of  mutual  gravi¬ 
tation,  and  whose  views  have  been  partly  confirmed  by  the 
discoveries  of  Herschel.  This  illustrious  mathematician  and 
astronomer  endeavours  to  prove,  by  an  induction  of  facts  and 
reasonings,  that,  in  order  to  the  stability  of  those  systems,  it 
is  necessary,  on  the  principles  of  universal  gravitation,  that 
there  be  a  large  central  body,  around  which  all  the  individuals 
which  compose  the  system  revolve.  There  is  no  necessity 


216 


LARGE  OPAQUE  GLOBES. 


that  such  a  central  body  should  possess  original  or  underiveh 
light.  The  fixed  stars  do  not  stand  in  need  of  it ;  and  as  for 
itself,  if  it  require  illumination,  it  will  receive  it  from  the  suns 
that  are  more  immediately  adjacent.  As  to  the  magnitude  of 
such  a  centre,  Lambert  estimates  that  the  central  body  of  the 
system  to  which  we  belong  must  have  a  diameter  at  least  equal 
to  the  whole  circumference  of  the  orbit  of  Saturn.  w  The 
magnitude  of  those  bodies,”  he  says,  “  ought  not  to  alarm  us, 
for,  in  the  first  place,  we  have  nothing  to  do  with  their  bulk, 
but  with  their  density  or  quantity  of  matter  by  which  the  law 
of  gravitation  is  regulated.  We  have  no  idea  of  the  density 
of  matter  that  is  not  porous ;  perhaps  gold,  the  most  dense 
of  terrestrial  substances,  would  be  found  a  mere  sponge  com¬ 
pared  with  such  a  central  body.  Besides,  nothing  is  great  or 
small  in  immensity ;  and  since  on  the  wing  of  light  we  can 
traverse  the  vast  regions  of  the  heavens,  matter  and  volumes 
ought  no  longer  to  excite  our  astonishment.  Beginning  with 
the  satellites,  even  suns  are  but  bodies  of  the  first  magnitude ; 
the  centres  of  the  fixed  stars,  of  the  fourth  ;  those  of  groups 
of  systems,  of  the  fifth,  and  so  of  the  rest.” 

Lambert  supposes  that  since  such  bodies  must  be  of  enor¬ 
mous  bulk,  and  illuminated  besides  by  one  or  more  fixed 
stars,  it  might  be  possible  to  perceive  the  one  which  belongs 
to  our  own  system,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  with  the  help 
of  the  telescope ;  that  its  apparent  diameter  may  be  very  con¬ 
siderable  ;  that,  however  weak  its  reflected  light,  it  may  not 
be  enfeebled  to  such  a  degree  as  to  be  rendered  imperceptible; 
that,  being  enlightened  by  one  or  more  suns,  it  ought  to  pre¬ 
sent  phases  analagous  to  those  of  the  moon ;  that  such  a  cen¬ 
tral  body  ought  to  extend  its  influence  even  to  the  extremities 
of  its  system,  and  consequently  ought  to  appear  under  a  sen¬ 
sible  diameter,  or  at  least  be  visible  by  the  telescope  ;  and  that 
as  the  attractive  force  of  a  body  decreases  as  the  square  of 
the  sine  of  its  apparent  semi-diameter,  so  this  apparent 
semi-diameter  cannot  be  invisible  in  any  place  to  which  its 
attractive  force  and  its  sphere  of  activity  extend.  Without 
sanctioning  all  the  opinions  which  this  ingenious  mathemati¬ 
cian  has  thrown  out  on  this  point,  we  may  admit  that  the 
subject  is  worthy  of  special  attention,  and  might  be  kept  in 
view  when  we  are  exploring  the  heavens  with  our  best  tele¬ 
scopes,  What  if  some  of  the  planetary  nebulae  be  bodies  of 
a  nature  similar  to  those  to  which  we  have  now  alluded  ? 

If  opaque  globes  of  a  prodigious  size  exist  throughout  the 
regions  of  the  firmament,  as  there  is  reason  to  believe,  they 
would  afford  us  a  clue  for  unravelling  certain  phenomena 


METEORIC  PHENOMENA. 


217 


which  have  hitherto  remained  in  some  degree  inexplicable 
Stars  have  appeared  all  at  once,  and,  after  having  shone  for  a 
year  or  more  with  a  brilliant  light,  have  gradually  disappeared 
Certain  stars  are  found  to  pass  through  regular  variations  of 
lustre,  and  for  a  certain  period  entirely  disappear,  but  after  a 
lapse  of  a  certain  number  of  months  or  days  re-appear,  and 
resume  their  former  brightness.  On  the  supposition  that 
opaque  bodies  exist  nearly  in  the  direction  of  such  stars,  some 
of  these  phenomena  would  admit  of  an  easy  explanation. 
Their  appearing  and  disappearing  might  be  nothing  more 
than  an  occultation  or  an  eclipse,  caused  by  the  interposition 
of  the  opaque  globe  between  our  eye  and  the  star.  This 
would,  indeed,  suppose  motion  to  exist  either  in  the  opaque 
body,  or  in  the  star,  or  in  the  eye  of  the  observer ;  and  per¬ 
haps  the  annual  motion  of  the  earth,  or  the  motion  of  the  sun 
in  absolute  space,  might  contribute,  in  a  certain  degree,  to 
produce  the  effect.  Motion,  of  some  kind  or  other,  must 
necessarily  be  supposed,  in  order  to  account  for  the  pheno¬ 
mena  of  variable  stars,  whatever  hypothesis  we  may  adopt  for 
their  explanation ;  but  as  nothing  decisive  can  be  stated  on 
this  subject,  in  the  meantime  I  shall  proceed  to  the  considera¬ 
tion  of  some  meteoric  phenomena  which  are  now  supposed 
to  have  a  connexion  with  certain  moving  bodies  in  the 
heavens. 


Meteoric  Phenomena  and  Shooting  Stars. 

In  my  volume  entitled  “  Celestial  Scenery,”  when  describing 
the  small  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  I  have  given 
a  detail  of  certain  facts  respecting  the  fall  of  large  masses  of 
solid  matter  from  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  usually 
denominated  meteoric  stones ,  which,  there  is  every  reason  to 
believe,  descend  from  regions  at  a  considerable  distance,  and 
even  beyond  the  sphere  of  the  moon.  Such  phenomena  seem 
to  indicate  the  probability  that  certain  opaque  bodies,  of  dif¬ 
ferent  dimensions,  are  revolving  through  space  in  certain  re¬ 
gions  within  the  limits  of  our  system.  “Nor  is  this,”  says 
Mrs.  Somerville,  “  an  unwarranted  presumption ;  many  such 
do  come  within  the  sphere  of  the  earth’s  attraction,  are  ignited 
by  the  velocity  with  which  they  pass  through  the  atmosphere, 
and  are  precipitated  with  great  violence  upon  the  earth.  The 
fall  of  meteoric  stones  is  much  more  frequent  than  is  generally 
believed.  Hardly  a  year  passes  without  some  instances  oc¬ 
curring  ;  and  if  it  be  considered  that  only  a  small  part  of  the 
earth  is  inhabited,  it  may  be  presumed  that  numbers  fall  in  the 
Vol.  VIII.  19 


318 


METEORIC  PHENOMENA. 


ocean,  or  on  the  uninhabited  part  of  the  land,  unseen  by  man. 
They  are  sometimes  of  great  magnitude  ;  the  volume  of  seve¬ 
ral  has  exceeded  that  of  a  body  of  seventy  miles  in  diameter. 
One  which  passed  within  twenty-five  miles  of  us  was  esti¬ 
mated  to  weigh  about  600,000  tons,  and  to  move  with  a  velo¬ 
city  of  about  twenty  miles  in  a  second,  a  fragment  of  it  alone 
reached  the  earth.  The  obliquity  of  the  descent  of  meteorites, 
the  peculiar  substances  they  are  composed  of,  and  the  explo¬ 
sion  accompanying  their  fall,  shew  that  they  are  foreign  to 
our  system.” 

But,  without  resuming  the  consideration  of  this  particular 
phenomenon,  there  is  another  which  of  late  years  has  excited 
a  considerable  degree  of  attention,  and  which  may  proceed 
from  a  cause  somewhat  similar,  to  which  I  shall  chiefly  direct 
tne  attention  of  the  reader — namely,  the  phenomenon  of  shoot¬ 
ing  or  falling  stars.  This  phenomenon,  though  most  fre¬ 
quently  observed  in  tropical  regions,  is  common  in  all  parts 
of  the  earth,  and  has  been  seen  in  almost  every  season  of  the 
year.  A  shooting  star  seems  to  burst  from  a  clear  sky,  and 
to  dart  across  the  heavens  with  a  long  train  of  light,  which  in 
a  few  seconds  leaves  no  trace  behind.  Dr.  Burney,  of  Gos¬ 
port,  for  several  years  kept  a  record  of  such  of  these  bodies 
as  came  under  his  own  observation,  and  found  that  in  the  year 
1819  there  were  121,  and  in  1820  about  131 ;  but  a  much 
greater  number  than  these  would  doubtless  be  perceived  could 
we  detect  all  that  make  their  appearance  in  the  sky,  the  greater 
proportion,  in  all  probability,  being  visible  only  during  the 
hours  usually  allotted  to  sleep.  Various  opinions  have  been 
entertained  respecting  the  cause  of  these  appearances.  Bec- 
caria  was  of  opinion  they  were  occasioned  by  electricity,  and 
brought  forward  the  following  facts  as  corroborative  of  his 
hypothesis  — About  an  hour  after  sunset,  he  and  some  friends 
that  were  with  him  observed  a  falling  star  directing  its  course 
directly  towards  them,  and  apparently  growing  larger  and 
larger,  but  just  before  it  reached  them  it  disappeared.  On 
vanishing,  their  faces,  hands,  and  clothes,  with  the  earth  and 
all  the  neighbouring  objects,  became  suddenly  illuminated 
with  a  diffused  and  lambent  light.  During  their  surprise  at 
this  appearance,  a  servant  informed  them  that  he  had  seen  a 
light  shine  suddenly  in  the  garden,  and  especially  upon  the 
streams  that  he  had  been  throwing  to  water  it ;  when,  sending 
up  an  electrical  kite  into  the  atmosphere,  he  likewise  observed 
a.  quantity  of  electric  matter  about  the  kite,  which  assumed 
the  appearance  of  a  falling  star.  Whatever  be  the  cause  of 
shooting  stars,  it  is  pretty  evident  that  they  have  their  origin 


NOVEMBER  METEORS. 


219 


at  a  very  considerable  elevation  above  the  earth.  Brydone 
informs  us  that,  from  the  top  of  Mount.  Etna,  he  noticed  some 
of  these  meteors,  w  which  still  appeared  to  be  as  much  elevated 
above  us  as  when  seen  from  the  plain ;  so  that  in  all  proba¬ 
bility  those  bodies  move  in  regions  much  beyond  the  bounds 
which  some  philosophers  have  assigned  to  our  atmosphere.” 

The  most  striking  and  remarkable  form  in  which  shooting 
stars  have  appeared  is  that  of  u  meteoric  showers,”  when 
thousands  of  those  bodies  have  appeared  to  sweep  along  at 
once,  and  in  continued  succession  for  several  hours,  so  that 
almost  the  whole  visible  canopy  of  the  sky  seemed  to  be  in 
a  blaze.  As  this  phenomenon  has  recently  excited  consi¬ 
derable  attention  among  philosophers,  and  as  it  is  now  gene¬ 
rally  considered  as  connected  with  some  moving  bodies  in 
the  heavens,  I  shall,  in  the  first  place,  give  a  detail  of  some 
of  the  more  remarkable  circumstances  with  which  it  has  been 
attended,  as  described  by  those  who  were  eye-witnesses  of 
the  scene.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  displays  of  the  phe¬ 
nomena  to  which  we  allude  is  that  which  was  seen  on  the 
evening  of  the  12th  and  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  Novem¬ 
ber,  1833,  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  following 
account  of  it  is  abridged  from  the  New  York  Commercial 
Advertiser  of  November  13,  1833  : — 

<c  The  sky  was  remarkably  clear  on  the  night  of  this  re¬ 
markable  phenomenon.  Some  time  before  twelve  o’clock, 
the  meteors  so  frequently  seen  on  summer  evenings,  called 
shooting  stars ,  were  observed  to  fall  with  unusual  frequency 
and  splendour.  They  continued  from  that  hour  to  flash 
athwart  the  skies  more  and  more,  until  they  were  eclipsed 
by  the  glories  of  the  rising  sun  this  morning.  From  four  to 
six  they  were  most  numerous  and  refulgent.  Within  the 
scope  that  the  eye  could  contain,  more  than  twenty  could  be 
seen  at  a  time  shooting  (save  upward)  in  every  direction. 
Not  a  cloud  obscured  the  broad  expanse,  and  millions  of 
meteors  sped  their  way  across  it  on  every  point  of  the  com¬ 
pass.  Were  it  possible  to  enumerate  them  in  the  swiftness 
of  their  arrowy  haste,  we  might  venture  to  say  that  for  the 
space  of  two  hours,  intervening  between  four  and  six,  more 
than  a  thousand  per  minute  might  have  been  counted.  Their 
coruscations  were  bright,  gleamy,  and  incessant,  and  they  fell 
thick  as  the  flakes  in  the  early  snows  of  December.  In  one 
instance  we  distinctly  heard  the  explosion  of  a  meteor  that 
shot  across  to  the  north-west,  leaving  a  broad  and  luminous 
track  ;  and  witnessed  another  which  left  a  path  of  light  that 
was  clearly  discernible  for  more  than  ten  minutes  after  the 


220 


NOVEMBER  METEORS. 


ball}  if  such  it  be,  had  exploded.  Its  length  was  gradually 
shortened,  widening  in  the  centre,  and  apparently  consisted 
of  separate  and  distinct  globules  of  light,  drawing  around  a 
common  centre,  glimmering  less  and  less  vividly  until  they 
finally  faded  in  the  distance.  Compared  with  the  splendour 
of  this  celestial  exhibition,  the  most  brilliant  rockets  and  fire¬ 
works  of  art  bore  less  relation  than  the  twinkling  of  the  most 
tiny  star  to  the  broad  glare  of  the  sun.  The  whole  heavens 
seemed  in  motion,  and  never  before  has  it  fallen  to  our  lot  to 
observe  a  phenomenon  so  magnificent  and  sublime.” 

Various  similar  accounts  of  the  same  phenomena  were 
given  in  the  Philadelphia ,  Hartford ,  Boston ,  and  other  news¬ 
papers  of  the  same  date,  of  which  the  following  are  extracts : 

“From  a  point  in  the  heavens,  about  fifteen  degrees  south¬ 
easterly  from  our  zenith,  the  meteors  darted  to  the  horizon  in 
every  point  of  the  compass.  Their  paths  were  described  in 
curve  lines  similar  to  those  of  the  circles  of  longitude  on  an 
artificial  globe.  They  were  generally  short  in  their  course, 

resembling  much  an  interrupted  line,  thus - . 

They  ceased  to  appear  when  within  ten  degrees  of  the  hori¬ 
zon.  I  did  not  see  a  single  meteor  pass  the  meteoric  pole  I 
have  described,  nor  one  pass  in  a  horizontal  direction.  Several 
of  them  afforded  as  much  light  as  faint  lightning.  One  in  the 
north-east  was  heard  to  explode  with  a  sound  like  that  of  the 
rush  of  the  distant  sky-rocket.  Millions  of  these  meteors 
must  have  been  darted  in  this  shower.  The  singularity  of 
this  meteoric  shower  consisted  in  the  countless  number  of  the 
celestial  rockets,  and  more  especially  in  their  constant  uni¬ 
form  divergence  from  near  the  zenith.” 

The  following  was  an  account  sent  by  Professor  Thomson, 
of  Nashville,  to  Professor  Olmsted,  of  New  Haven,  of  the 
meteors  which  appeared  November  13,  1833,  as  seen  in  the 
State  of  Mississippi : — “  About  an  hour  before  day-light  I 
was  called  to  see  the  falling  meteors ;  it  was  the  most  sub¬ 
lime  and  brilliant  sight  I  had  ever  witnessed.  The  largest  of 
the  falling  bodies  appeared  about  the  size  of  Jupiter  or  Venus 
when  brightest.  The  sky  presented  the  appearance  of  a 
shower  of  stars,  which  many  thought  were  real  stars  and 
omens  of  dreadful  events.  I  noticed  the  appearance  of  a 
radiating  point ,  which  I  conceived  to  be  the  vanishing  point 
of  straight  lines  as  seen  in  perspective.  This  point  appeared 
to  he  stationary.  The  meteors  fell  to  the  earth  at  an  angle 
of  about  seventy-five  degrees  with  the  horizon,  moving  from 
the  east  towards  the  west.”  The  following  is  from  a  writer 
in  the  Boston  Christian  Register: — “My  first  attention  was 


NOVEMBER  METEORS. 


22 1 


lo  determine  the  centre  or  point  from  which  the  meteors 
started,  which,  from  the  place  where  I  stood,  (lat.  42°  4 5' 
N-.,)  appeared  in  the  Lion’s  heart,  near  Regulus.  There  is 
one  thing  that  I  have  not  seen  noticed  by  any  that  have 
written,  and  which  could  not  have  been  noticed  by  me  had  I 
not  kept  my  eye  on  the  centre  or  point  from  whence  the 
meteors  all  shot  forth  for  a  considerable  time,  and  that  was 
an  appearance  of  a  star  less  at  first  than  the  stars  of  the  con¬ 
stellation  by  which  it  was  surrounded,  but  it  would  increase 
until  it  was  much  larger  than  the  stars,  then  totally  disappear 
from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes,  and  then  appear  again  •  but  the 
meteors  shot  forth  in  greater  numbers  in  the  interval  between 
the  appearances  above  mentioned.”* 

It  is  worthy  of  particular  notice,  that  the  point  from  which 
the  meteors  seemed  to  emanate  was  observed,  by  those  who 
fixed  its  position  among  the  stars,  to  be  in  the  constellation 
Leo  ;  and,  according  to  their  concurrent  testimony,  this  radiant 
point  was  stationary  among  the  stars  during  the  whole  period 
of  observation — that  is,  it  did  not  move  along  with  the  earth 
in  its  diurnal  revolution  eastward ,  but  accompanied  the  stars 
in  their  apparent  progress  westward ,  which  proves  the  eleva¬ 
tion  of  the  meteors  to  be  far  beyond  our  atmosphere.  The 
following  cut  represents  the  appearance  of  these  meteors  for 


Fig.  76. 


*  This  astonishing  exhibition  covered  a  very  considerable  part  of  the 
earth’s  surface.  It  has  been  traced  from  the  longitude  of  61°  in  the  At 
lantic  Ocean  to  100°  in  Central  Mexico,  and  from  the  North  American 
lakes  to  the  West  Indies. 


19* 


222 


SHOOTING  STARS. 


several  hours,  as  seen  at  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and 
other  places  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  United  States.  It  is 
copied  from  one  of  the  American  periodicals  published  about 
the  time  when  those  phenomena  appeared. 

Meteoric  phenomena,  nearly  resembling  what  has  been 
now  described,  have  occurred  at  several  former  periods.  One 
remarkable  instance  of  what  was  called  “  showers  of  tire” 
occurred  above  eighty  years  ago  in  South  America.  At  Quito, 
so  many  falling  stars  were  seen  above  the  volcano  of  Gayam- 
bo,  that  the  inhabitants  were  led  to  imagine  the  mountain  to 
be  in  flames.  The  people  assembled  in  the  plain  of  Exico, 
and  a  .procession  was  about  to  set  out  in  consequence  from 
the  convent  of  St.  Francis,  when  they  discovered  the  pheno¬ 
menon  to  be  occasioned  by  meteors  which  ran  along  the  skies 
in  all  directions. 

A  more  extensive  and  remarkable  phenomenon  of  this  kind 
occurred  in  the  night  of  the  12th  of  November,  1779.  Of 
this  appearance,  as  it  was  seen  at  Cumana,  an  accurate  ac¬ 
count  has  been  given  by  M.  Humboldt  and  M.  Boupland.  It 
occurred  towards  the  morning,  when  thousands  of  meteors, 
eolides,  fire-balls,  or  falling  stars,  as  they  were  variously 
denominated,  succeeded  each  other  during  four  hours.  Their 
direction  was  from  north  to  south.  They  rose  in  the  horizon 
at  east-north-east,  followed  the  direction  of  the  meridian,  and 
fell  towards  the  south.  There  was  little  wind,  and  this  from 
the  east.  No  trace  of  clouds  was  seen.  There  was  not  a 
space  in  the  firmament  equal  in  extent  to  three  diameters  of 
the  moon  which  was  not  filled  with  burning  stars.  They 
were  of  different  sizes ;  they  left  luminous  traces  of  from  five 
to  ten  degrees  in  length.  The  appearance  of  these  traces 
continued  seven  or  eight  seconds.  Many  of  the  stars  had  a 
distinct  nucleus  as  large  as  the  apparent  disk  of  Jupiter.  The 
largest  were  from  1°  to  1°  13'  in  diameter.  Their  light  was 
white,  and  they  seemed  to  burst  as  by  explosion.  They  were 
seen  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Cumana,  the  oldest  of  whom 
asserted  that  the  great  earthquakes  of  1766  were  preceded  by 
similar  phenomena. 

It  is  a  circumstance  worthy  of  particular  notice,  that  these 
meteoric  showers  have  taken  place  chiefly  on  the  12th  and 
13th  of  November,  and  hence  they  are  now  distinguished  by 
the  name  of  the  November  Meteors.  Captain  Hammond  gives 
the  following  account  of  shooting  stars  seen  at  Mocha,  on  the 
Bed  Sea,  November  13,  1832,  the  day  and  month  on  which 
they  have  most  generally  been  seen  : — ■“  From  one  o’clock, 
A.  M.,  till  after  daylight,  there  was  a  very  unusual  phenome- 


SHOWERS  OE  SHOOTING  STARS. 


223 


non  in  the  heavens.  It  appeared  like  meteors  bursting  in 
every  direction.  The  sky  at  the  time  was  clear,  the  stars  and 
moon  bright,  with  streaks  of  light  and  thin  white  clouds  in¬ 
terspersed  in  the  sky.  On  landing  in  the  morning,  I  inquired 
of  the  Arabs  if  they  had  noticed  the  above.  They  said  they 
had  been  observing  it  most  of  the  night.  I  asked  them  if 
ever  the  like  had  appeared  before  ?  The  oldest  of  them  re» 
plied  that  it  had  not.” 

On  the  morning  of  the  12th  of  November,  1799,  a  remark¬ 
able  phenomenon  of  this  kind  was  seen  by  Mr.  Ellicot,  near 
Cape  Florida,  which  he  thus  describes  : — <w  The  phenomenon 
was  grand  and  awful ;  the  whole  heavens  appeared  as  if  illumi¬ 
nated  with  sky-rockets,  which  disappeared  only  with  the  light 
of  the  sun  after  daybreak.  The  meteors,  which  at  any  one 
instant  of  time  appeared  as  numerous  as  the  stars,  flew  in  all 
possible  directions,  except  from  the  earth,  towards  which 
they  all  inclined  more  or  less,  and  some  of  them  descended 
perpendicularly  over  the  vessel  we  were  in,  so  that  we  were 
in  constant  dread  of  their  falling  on  us.”  The  same  appear¬ 
ances  were  observed  on  the  same  night  at  Santa  Fe,  Cumana, 
Quito,  and  Peru,  in  South  America,  as  far  north  as  Labrador 
and  Greenland,  and  as  far  east  as  Weimar  in  Germany ;  thus 
having  been  visible  over  an  extent  on  the  globe  of  64°  in 
latitude,  and  94°  of  longitude.  Meteoric  showers  were  also 
seen  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  November,  1831,  in  the 
Ohio  country,  and  along  the  coast  of  Spain. 

Flights  of  shooting  stars,  more  or  less  numerous,  have 
been  seen  in  different  places,  both  in  Europe  and  America,  at 
the  same  period — namely,  the  13th  of  November,  in  the 
years  1834,  1835,  1836,  and  1837,  so  that  they  are  now  con¬ 
sidered  as  a  regular  periodical  phenomenon.  In  a  letter  I 
received,  in  1837,  from  Elijah  H.  Burrett,  Esq.,  A.  M.,  a  scien¬ 
tific  gentleman  in  the  state  of  Connecticut,  and  a  correspon¬ 
dent  of  Professor  Olmsted,  he  has  the  following  notice  on  the 
subject : — “  With  respect  to  the  shooting  stars,  I  believe  Pro¬ 
fessor  Olmsted  is  now  very  strong  in  the  belief  that  they  are 
exactly  periodical  and  annual.  The  recurrence  of  this  sin¬ 
gular  phenomenon  on  the  morning  of  the  13th  of  November, 
1836,  and  very  nearly  at  the  same  hour, — the  radiation  of  the 
meteors  from  the  same  point  of  the  heavens,  differing  only 
one  half  a  degree,  (as  did  those  of  1834,)  namely  145°  right 
ascension  in  the  face  of  Leo,  and  all  the  attending  phenomena 
being  the  same,  though  upon  a  scale  less  magnificent, — settle 
the  question  as  to  its  being  a  regular  and  annual  phenomenon 
According  to  his  notion,  the  zodiacal  light  is  an  attribute  of 


224  CIRCUMSTANCES  ATTENDING  METEOR  SHOWERS, 

the  same  cause,  or  an  emanation  from  the  same  radiant.  Ac¬ 
cordingly,  my  friend  Dr.  Olmsted  was  fortunate  enough  to 
see  just  so  much  of  the  zodiacal  light  last  May  as  to  enable 
him  to  identify  it  with  the  phenomena  of  November,  1834, 
except  that  it  was  in  the  other  node.” 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  circumstances  attending  this 
display,  in  1833,  was,  that  the  meteors  all  seemed  to  emanate 
from  one  and  the  same  point,  a  little  south-east  of  the  zenith. 
Following  the  arch  of  the  sky,  they  ran  along  with  immense 
velocity,  describing  in  some  instances  an  arc  of  30°  or  40°  in 
a  few  seconds.  On  an  attentive  inspection,  it  was  seen  that 
the  meteors  exhibited  three  distinct  varieties  ;  the  first,  consist¬ 
ing  of  phosphoric  lines ,  apparently  described  by  a  point ;  the 
second ,  of  large  fire-halls  that  at  intervals  darted  along  the  sky 
leaving  luminous  trains  which  occasionally  remained  in  view 
for  a  number  of  minutes,  and  in  some  cases  for  half  an  hour 
or  more ;  the  third  of  undefined  luminous  bodies ,  which  re¬ 
mained  nearly  stationary  in  the  heavens  for  a  considerable 
time.  Those  of  the  first  variety  were  the  most  numerous, 
and  resembled  a  shower  of  fiery  snow  driven  with  inconceiv¬ 
able  velocity.  The  second  kind  appeared  more  like  falling 
stars, — a  spectacle  which  was  contemplated  by  certain  behold¬ 
ers  with  great  amazement  and  terror.  They  were  sometimes 
of  enormous  size.  One  of  them  seen  in  North  Carolina  ap¬ 
peared  larger  than  the  full  moon  rising,  and  its  light  rendered 
even  small  objects  visible.  The  same  ball,  or  a  similar  one, 
seen  at  New  Haven,  passed  off  in  a  north-west  direction  and 
exploded  a  little  northward  of  the  star  Capella,  leaving  a  train 
of  peculiar  beauty.  The  line  of  direction  was  at  first  nearly 
straight,  but  it  soon  began  to  contract  in  length,  to  dilate  in 
breadth,  and  to  assume  the  figure  of  a  serpent  scrolling  itself 
up  until  it  appeared  like  a  luminous  cloud  of  vapour  floating 
gracefully  in  the  air,  where  it  remained  in  full  view  for  several 
minutes.  Of  the  third  variety,  the  following  are  examples  : — 
At  Poland,  State  of  Ohio,  a  luminous  body  was  distinctly 
visible  in  the  north-east  for  more  than  an  hour.  It  was  very 
brilliant,  in  the  form  of  a  pruning  hook ,  and  apparently  twenty 
feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  broad.  It  gradually  settled 
towards  the  horizon  until  it  disappeared.  At  Niagara  Falls,  a 
large  luminous  body,  shaped  like  a  square  table ,  was  seen 
near  the  zenith,  remaining  for  sometime  almost  stationary, 
emitting  large  streams  of  light. 

The  recurrence  of  this  wonderful  phenomenon  at  the  same 
season  of  the  year  soon  attracted  the  attention  of  the  philoso¬ 
phers  of  Europe,  and  they  resolved  to  watch  more  particularly 


SHOOTING  STABS  SEEN  IN  FRANCE  IN  1836.  225 


the  aspect  of  the  nocturnal  heavens  in  the  month  of  Novem¬ 
ber.  The  celebrated  M.  Arago  made  arrangements  to  procure 
simultaneous  observations  from  the  different  parts  of  France, 
for  the  night  between  the  12th  and  13th  of  November,  1836. 
The  following  is  the  substance  of  the  report  which  was  pub¬ 
lished  of  these  observations.  The  places  at  which  observa¬ 
tions  were  made,  and  the  number  of  meteors  counted,  were 
as  under : — 

Paris,  at  the  Observatory . 170 

Dieppe,  100  miles  north-west  of  Paris  ...  36 

Arras,  100  miles  north  of  Paris . 27 

Strasburgh,  250  miles  east  of  Paris  ....  85 

Von  Altemare,  260  miles  south-east  of  Paris  .  75 

Angon,  ISO  miles  south-west  of  Paris  .  .  .  49 

Rochefort,  260  miles  south-south-west  of  Paris  23 
Havre,  120  miles  west  of  Paris . 300 

Besides  these  positive  observations,  information  was  received 
*>f  similar  phenomena  having  been  observed  at  other  places. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  Tours,  for  example,  the  peasants  de¬ 
clared  they  had  seen  a  rain  of  fire  during  the  night ;  and  in 
the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  near  Culloy,  three  asteroids  suc¬ 
ceeded  each  other  with  such  rapidity  that  the  people,  seeing 
them  through  a  fog,  supposed  them  to  be  flashes  of  lightning, 
or  a  repetition  of  the  brilliant  aurora  of  the  18th  of  October. 
As  in  the  great  meteoric  shower  of  1833,  so  at  this  time  the 
greater  part  of  the  falling  stars  which  were  particularly  ob¬ 
served  seemed  to  issue  from  a  point  in  the  constellation  of 
Leo.  Of  those  noticed  at  Bercy,  fifty-seven  traversed  lines 
which  if  continued  would  have  ended  in  that  constellation ; 
and  of  eighty-five  observed  at  Strasburg  fifty-seven  had  similar 
courses.  M.  Arago  purposes  an  inquiry  whether,  from  their 
number,  this  shower  of  falling  stars  may  or  may  not  be  con¬ 
sidered  unusual ;  and  he  gives  the  following  comparisons  : — 
At  Paris,  on  the  preceding  night,  none  were  seen  during  an 
hour;  from  three  to  five  were  seen  in  the  same  space  of  time 
on  the  night  after  the  shower,  and  from  two  to  three  on  the 
second  night.  On  the  preceding  night,  at  Bercy,  not  one  was 
seen  in  two  hours.  At  Von  Altemare,  on  the  6th  of  Novem¬ 
ber,  none  were  seen  during  two  hours’  watching ;  on  the 
7th,  there  were  four  in  four  hours ;  on  the  8th,  none  in  three 
hours  ;  on  the  9th,  one  in  six  hours  ;  and  on  the  14th,  two  in 
six  hours. 

I  have  been  somewhat  particular  ir  stating  the  more  re- 


226 


dr.  olmsted’s  deductions 


markable  circumstances  connected  with  this  phenomenon,  as 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  it  is.  produced  by  an  un¬ 
known  celestial  body  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  earth; 
and  I  shall  now  proceed  to  give  a  brief  view  of  the  opinions 
which  certain  philosophers  entertain,  and  the  deductions  they 
have  been  led  to  make  in  reference  to  this  subject. 

In  the  u  American  Journal  of  Science”  for  April,  1834,  Dr. 
Olmsted,  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
in  Yale  College,  New  Haven,  has  entered  into  an  elaborate 
investigation  of  this  subject  in  a  communication  which  occu¬ 
pies  about  forty-two  pages.  The  whole  of  this  paper  is  well 
worthy  of  the  attentive  perusal  of  the  philosophic  inquirer, 
but  the  limits  to  which  I  am  necessarily  confined  in  this  chap¬ 
ter  will  permit  me  to  state  only  the  general  results  of  the 
Professor’s  investigations ;  all  of  which  appear  to  be  de¬ 
duced  from  the  phenomena  with  great  acuteness  and  ingenuity 
of  reasoning.  These  results  are  : 

1.  That  the  meteors  of  November  13  had  their  origin  be¬ 
yond  the  limits  of  our  atmosphere.  For  the  source  of  the 
meteors  did  not  partake  of  the  earth’s  motion,  which  was  de¬ 
monstrable  from  a  variety  of  circumstances,  some  of  which 
have  been  alluded  to  above. 

2.  That  the  height  of  the  place  whence  the  meteors  emanated , 
above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  ivas  about  2238  miles.  This 
was  ascertained  from  a  comparison  of  different  observations 
made  in  different  places,  and  from  trigonometrical  calculations 
founded  upon  them. 

3.  The  meteors  fell  toivards  the  earth ,  being  attracted  to  it 
by  the  force  of  gravity.  It  seemed  unnecessary  to  assign  any 
other  cause,  since  gravity  is  adequate  to  produce  the  effect. 

4.  They  fell  towards  the  earth  in  straight  lines ,  and  in  direc¬ 
tions  which,  within  considerable  distances,  were  nearly  parallel 
ivith  each  other.  The  courses  are  inferred  to  have  been 
straight  lines,  because  no  others  could  have  appeared  to  spec¬ 
tators  in  different  situations  to  have  described  arcs  of  great 
circles. 

5.  They  entered  the  earth? s  atmosphere  with  a  velocity  equal 
to  about,  four  miles  per  second,  or  more  than  ten  times  greate’" 
than  the  maximum  velocity  of  a  cannon  ball,  and  about  nine¬ 
teen  times  that  of  sound.  This  was  inferred  from  the  laws  of 
falling  bodies 

6.  The  meteors  consisted  of  combustible  matter,  and  took  fre 
and  ivere  consumed  in  traversing  the  atmosphere.  They  were 
seen  glowing  with  intense  light  and  heat,  increasing  in  size 
and  splendour  as  they  approached  the  earth.  They  were  seen 


RESPECTING  THE  NOVEMBER  METEORS  227 

extinguished  in  a  manner  in  all  respects  resembling  a  combus¬ 
tible  body  like  a  sky-rocket ;  and  in  the  case  of  the  larger, 
a  cloud  of  luminous  vapour  was  seen  as  the  product  of  com¬ 
bustion.  That  they  took  tire  in  the  atmosphere  is  inferred  from 
the  fact  that  they  were  not  luminous  in  their  original  situation 
in  space,  otherwise  the  body  from  which  they  emanated  would 
have  been  visible. 

7.  Some  of  the  larger  meteors  must  have  been  bodies  of  great 
size.  Some  of  them  appeared  larger  than  the  full  moon  rising. 
Such  a  body  seen  at  110  miles  distance  behoved  to  have  been, 
one  mile  in  diameter ;  at  fifty-five  miles,  one-half  mile  ;  at  22 
miles,  one-fifth  of  a  mile  ;  at  5^  miles,  one-twentieth  of  a  mile, 
or  264  feet. 

8.  The  meteors  were  constituted  of  light  and  transparent 
materials.  They  were  of  light  materials,  otherwise  their  mo¬ 
mentum  would  have  been  sufficient  to  enable  them  to  make 
their  way  through  the  atmosphere  to  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
They  were  transparent  bodies,  otherwise  we  cannot  conceive 
how  they  could  have  existed  together  in  their  original  state 
without  being  visible  by  reflected  light. 

9.  The  next,  and  one  of  the  principal  subjects  of  inquiry 
was,  What  relations  did  the  body  which  afforded  the  meteoric 
shower  sustain  to  the  earth  f  Was  it  of  the  nature  of  a  satellite 
that  revolves  round  the  earth  as  its  centre  of  motion  ?  Was 
it  a  collection  of  nebulous  matter  which  the  earth  encountered 
in  its  annual  motion  ?  or  was  it  a  comet  which  chanced  at 
this  time  to  be  pursuing  its  path  along  with  the  earth  around 
their  common  centre  of  motion  ?  It  could  not  have  been  a 
satellite,  because  it  remained  so  long  stationary  with  respect 
to  the  earth ;  nor  was  it  a  nebula ,  either  stationary  or  wan¬ 
dering  lawless  through  space.  Such  a  collection  of  matter 
could  not  remain  stationary  within  the  solar  system  ;  and  had 
it  been  in  motion  in  any  other  direction  than  that  in  which 
the  earth  was  moving,  it  would  soon  have  been  separated  from 
the  earth,  since  during  the  eight  hours  while  the  meteoric 
shower  lasted,  the  earth  moved  in  its  orbit  through  the  space 
of  540,000  miles.  The  conclusion  to  which  Professor  Olm¬ 
sted  arrives,  after  a  due  consideration  of  all  the  circumstances, 
is  the  following  : — 

That  the  meteors  of  November  13//j  consisted  of  portions  of 
the  extreme  parts  of  a  nebulous  body ,  which  revolves  around 
the  sun  in  an  orbit  interior  to  that  of  the  earth ,  but  little  in¬ 
clined  to  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic ,  having  its  aphelion  near  to 
the  ear  lids  path:  and  having  a  periodic  time  of  182  days 
nearly. 


228 


dr.  olmsted’s  deductions. 


This  conclusion,  the  professor  thinks,  will  account  for  the 
following-,  among  other  circumstances  : — Why  the  phenome¬ 
non  remained  so  long  stationary  with  respect  to  the  earth ; 
why  it  was  seen  in  that  particular  part  of  the  heavens ;  and 
why  it  returns  at  stated  periods,  having  appeared  at  Mocha, 
in  Arabia,  just  one  year  preceding,  and  in  a  manner  very  simi¬ 
lar  to  the  present,  as  described  by  Humboldt  and  by  Ellicot 
thirty-four  years  before.  It  will  likewise  account  for  an 
auroral  light,  resembling  day-break,  which  was  seen  in  the 
east  several  hours  before  the  dawn  of  day,  and  it  is  also  sup¬ 
posed  it  may  account  for  the  different  appearances  of  the 
zodiacal  light.  The  professor  is  of  opinion  that  the  body 
alluded  to  is  somewhat  analogous  to  that  of  a  comet.  Fig.  77 
represents  the  supposed  orbit  of  this  body  in  relation  to  that 
of  the  earth.  E  HI  K  represents  the  orbit  of  the  earth  ;  <S, 
the  position  of  the  sun ;  and  C  D  F  G,  the  supposed  orbit  of 
the  body  which  was  the  source  of  the  meteoric  phenomena. 
At  the  time  these  phenomena  were  seen,  the  body  is  supposed 
*?  have  been  at  C  when  the  earth  was  at  E. 

Fig.  77. 


I 


GENERAL  REFLECTIONS. 


229 


Arago  appears  to  entertain  an  opinion  on  this  subject  not 
very  different  from  that  of  Dr.  Olmsted.  He  supposes  that 
there  may  be  myriads  of  bodies,  composed  probably  of  nebu¬ 
lous  matter  similar  to  the  tails  of  comets,  circulating  round 
the  sun  in  a  zone  or  ring  that  crosses  the  earth’s  orbit  at  that 
part  where  it  is  about  the  12th  November,  and  that  some  of 
them,  drawn  from  their  course  by  the  earth’s  attraction,  fall 
towards  it,  and  taking  tire  when  they  enter  the  atmosphere, 
in  consequence  of  their  prodigiously  rapid  motion,  present  the 
luminous  phenomena  of  falling  stars.  The  body  or  bodies 
from  which  these  meteors  proceed,  he  considers  as  unques¬ 
tionably  in  rapid  motion,  performing  a  revolution  round  the 
sun  in  some  plane  different  from  that  of  the  earth’s  orbit; 
and  that  the  apparent  course  of  the  meteors  will  be  com¬ 
pounded  of  this  proper  motion  and  of  the  earth’s  motion  in  its 
orbit  at  the  time.  It  follows,  that  the  point  from  which  they 
seem  to  come  will  be  that  towards  which  the  earth  is  moving 
at  the  time,  namely,  the  constellation  Leo ;  for  the  line  or 
tangent  of  the  earth’s  annual  motion  at  the  13th  and  14th 
November  points  exactly  to  that  constellation.* 

Thus  it  appears  that  celestial  bodies  are  revolving  around 
us  of  which  we  formerly  had  no  knowledge  or  conception. 
A  new  planetary  system,  within  the  limits  of  the  old,  is  be¬ 
ginning  to  be  revealed  to  us,  the  number  of  the  bodies  belong¬ 
ing  to  which  may  be  much  greater  than  we  are  yet  aware  of, 
and  their  particular  properties  and  motions  may  at  no  distant 
period  be  detected  and  explained.  This  is  one  proof,  among 
others,  that  bodies  of  a  considerable  size  may  exist  in  the 
heavens,  and  be  prosecuting  their  courses  in  various  direc¬ 
tions,  though  they  have  never  been  detected  by  our  telescopes. 
The  subject  is  peculiarly  interesting  to  philosophers  and 
astronomers.  The  facts  which  have  already  been  observed 
afford  a  sensible  proof  of  the  attractive  power  of  the  earth 

*  A  gentleman  in  South  Carolina  thus  describes  the  effect  of  the 
phenomenon  of  1833  upon  his  negroes: — “  I  was  suddenly  awakened  by 
the  most  distressing  cries  that  ever  fell  on  my  ears.  Shrieks  of  horror  and 
cries  of  mercy  I  could  hear  from  most  of  the  negroes  on  three  plantations, 
amounting  in  all  to  about  six  or  eight  hundred.  While  earnestly  listen¬ 
ing  for  the  cause,  I  heard  a  faint  voice  near  the  door  calling  my  name.  I 
arose,  and  taking  my  sword,  stood  at  the  door.  At  this  moment  I  heara 
the  same  voice  still  beseeching  me  to  rise,  and  saying,  ‘  Oh,  my  God! 
the  world  is  on  fire  !’  I  then  opened  the  door,  and  it  is  difficult  to  say  which 
excited  me  most — the  awfulness  of  the  scene,  or  the  distressed  cries  of 
the  negroes.  Upwards  of  one  hundred  lay  prostrate  on  the  ground  ;  some 
speechless,  and  some  uttering  the  bitterest  cries,  but  most  with  their 
hands  raised,  imploring  God  to  save  the  world  and  them.  The  scene 
was  truly  awful;  for  never  did  rain  fall  much  thicker  than  the  meteors 
fell  towards  the  earth, — east,  west,  north,  and  south,  it  was  the  same!” 

You.  VIII.  20 


230  ARGUMENTS  FOR  A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS. 


over  bodies  at  a  distance  in  the  heavens ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  the  future  observations  and  investigations  of  scientific 
men,  in  relation  to  such  phenomena,  will  throw  some  further 
light  on  the  nature  and  properties  of  bodies  which  have 
hitherto  been  involved  in  darkness  and  mystery.  What  the 
destination  of  such  bodies  may  be,  or  the  ends  they  serve  in 
the  economy  of  nature,  we  are  as  yet  entirely  ignorant  of.  It 
appears  pretty  evident  that  they  are  bodies  of  no  great  density, 
otherwise  their  effect  on  the  earth  might  have  been  more  ter¬ 
rific  and  disastrous.  Had  their  quantity  of  matter  been  con¬ 
siderable,  when  accompanied  with  so  prodigious  a  velocity  as 
they  evidently  had,  their  momentum  would  have  been  such 
as  to  have  dashed  them  with  violence  upon  the  earth,  where 
the  most  appalling  effects  might  have  been  produced,  in  the 
demolition  of  human  habitations,  and  the  destruction  of  thou¬ 
sands  of  their  inhabitants.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  any 
of  them  made  their  way  through  the  atmosphere  to  the  surface 
of  the  earth ,  which  was  doubtless  owing  to  the  comparatively 
light  materials  of  which  they  were  composed.  This  circum¬ 
stance,  along  with  many  others,  evidently  shews  that  we  may 
be  surrounded  with  numerous  bodies  and  substances  impalpa¬ 
ble  to  the  organs  of  vision,  any  one  of  which  might  be  suffi¬ 
cient  to  deprive  us  of  our  comforts,  and  even  prove  destructive 
to  our  existence,  were  it  not  under  the  direction  and  control 
of  Infinite  Wisdom  and  Benevolence. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

ARGUMENTS  ILLUSTRATIVE  OF  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  A  PLURA 

LITY  OF  WORLDS. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  exhibited  a  condensed  view 
of  the  principal  facts  in  relation  to  the  Sidereal  Heavens,  I 
shall  now  inquire  into  some  of  the  designs  which  the  Al¬ 
mighty  Creator  appears  to  have  had  in  view  in  replenishing 
his  universe  with  such  an  immense  number  and  variety  of 
magnificent  orbs.  In  Chapter  IX.  of  u  Celestial  Scenery,”  I 
entered  on  a  consideration  of  this  subject,  and  illustrated  at 
some  length  a  few  leading  arguments,  which  tend  to  prove 
that  matter  was  created  chiefly  in  subserviency  to  mind ,  and 
that  the  main  object  of  the  creation  of  the  planets,  as  proved 
from  all  the  decorations  and  special  arrangements  connected 


ARGUMENTS  FOR  A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS.  231 

with  them,  was  to  afford  habitations  for  numerous  orders  of 
sensitive  and  intellectual  beings.  Without  resuming  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  any  of  the  arguments  there  stated,  I  shall  in  this 
chapter  offer  a  few  additional  arguments  corroborative  of  the 
same  position,  which,  taken  in  connexion  with  the  former, 
will,  I  trust,  amount  to  a  moral  demonstration  that  all  the 
great  globes  in  the  universe  are  in  some  respect  or  another 
connected  with  intelligent  existence. 

I.  The  first  class  of  arguments  I  shall  illustrate  is  the  fol¬ 
lowing  : — That  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is  more 
worthy  of  the  perfections  of  the  Infinite  Creator ,  and  gives 
us  a  more  glorious  and  magnificent  idea  of  his  character  and 
operations  than  to  suppose  his  benevolent  regards  confined  to 
the  globe  on  which  we  dwell. 

1.  The  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is  more  accordant 
with  the  idea  of  the  infinity  of  the  Divine  Mind  than  any 
other  position.  It  is  admitted  by  all  rational  theists  and 
theologians  that  the  Divine  nature  fills  the  immensity  of 
space,  and  we  consequently  adore  the  Creator  as  an  infinite 
and  incomprehensible  being.  But  we  can  have  no  ideas  ap¬ 
proximating  to  what  infinity  really  is,  unless  by  the  prospects 
opened  to  us  of  the  indefinite  extension  of  material  existence. 
Beyond  the  limits  we  may  assign  to  the  material  world,  our 
ideas,  if  we  have  any  ideas  at  all,  run  into  confusion,  and 
approximate  to  inanity.  It  does  not  comport  with  the  idea 
of  a  Being  of  infinite  perfection  that  his  works  should  be 
confined  to  one  point  of  infinite  space,  or  that  one  compara¬ 
tively  small  race  of  intelligent  beings  should  be  the  sole 
object  of  the  moral  government  of  Him  whose  presence  fills 
the  regions  of  immensity.  It  is  more  corresponding  to  the 
conceptions  we  ought  to  form  of  such  a  Being  that  the  im¬ 
mensity  of  his  works  should  correspond,  in  some  degree,  to 
the  immensity  of  his  nature  ;  and,  so  far  as  our  knowledge 
and  observation  extend,  this  is  in  reality  the  case.  Beyond 
the  range  of  natural  vision,  the  telescope  enables  us  to  descry 
numerous  objects  of  amazing  magnitude;  and,  in  proportion 
to  the  excellence  of  the  instrument  and  the  powers  applied, 
objects  still  more  remote  in  the  spaces  of  immensity  are  un¬ 
folded  to  our  view,  leaving  us  no  room  to  doubt  that  count¬ 
less  globes  and  masses  of  matter  lie  concealed  in  the  still 
remoter  regions  of  infinity,  far  beyond  the  utmost  stretch  of 
mortal  vision.  But  huge  masses  of  matter,  however  numer¬ 
ous  and  widely  extended,  if  devoid  of  intelligent  beings,  could 
never  comport  with  the  idea  of  happiness  being  co-extensive 
with  the  range  of  the  Creator’s  dominions  Such  an  idea 


* 


232  ARGUMENTS  FOR  A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS. 


would  completely  obscure  the  lustre  of  all  his  other  attri¬ 
butes,  and  prevent  them  from  being-  known  and  appreciated 
wherever  his  Omnipotence  is  displayed.  To  consider  crea¬ 
tion,  therefore,  in  all  its  departments,  as  extending  throughout 
regions  of  space  illimitable  to  mortal  view,  and  filled  with 
intelligent  existence,  is  nothing  more  than  what  comports 
with  the  idea  of  Him  who  inhabiteth  immensity,  and  whose 
perfections  are  boundless  and  past  finding  out. 

2.  The  idea  of  the  indefinite  extension  of  the  universe  and 
a  plurality  of  worlds  is  most  accordant  with  the  eternity  of 
the  Divine  Mind.  When  we  go  back  in  imagination  to  ages 
and  centuries  of  duration  more  numerous  than  the  drops  of 
ocean  or  the  sands  on  the  sea-shore,  we  find  the  Deity  exist¬ 
ing  in  all  the  plenitude  of  his  incommunicable  attributes  j  for 
u  He  inhabiteth  eternity,”  as  well  as  immensity.  There  is 
nothing  repugnant  either  to  reason  or  revelation  to  suppose 
that,  innumerable  ages  before  our  globe  was  arranged  into  its 
present  state,  many  regions  of  infinite  space  were  replenished 
with  material  existence ;  for  the  Scriptures  nowhere  assert 
that  the  materials  out  of  which  our  globe  was  arranged  were 
brought  from  nothing  into  existence  at  the  period  when  Moses 
commences  his  narrative  of  the  processes  which  preceded  the 
formation  of  man.  Nor  have  we  any  reason  to  believe  that 
the  operations  of  Creating  Power  have  ceased  since  the  struc¬ 
ture  of  our  world  was  completed,  but  have  some  evidences 
of  the  contrary ;  for  example,  in  the  case  of  new  stars  which 
have  made  their  appearance  at  different  periods  since  the  time 
of  the  Mosaic  creation,  and  even  within  the  limits  of  the  last 
century.  It  does  not  appear  corresponding  to  the  idea  of  an 
Eternal  P>eing,  whose  existence  can  never  terminate,  and 
whose  perfections  are  the  same  at  all  periods  of  duration,  that 
every  thing  should  stand  still  in  the  universe,  and  that  nothing 
new  should  arise  into  existence  during  the  lapse  of  infinite 
duration,  which  would  in  effect  be  the  case  if  the  work  of 
creation  were  absolutely  finished,  or  if  man  were  the  princi¬ 
pal  intelligence  connected  with  the  material  system. 

Whether  the  happiness  of  the  Divinity  may  be  increased 
by  the  contemplation  of  his  purposes  and  plans  being  brought 
into  effect,  we  cannot  positively  declare ;  though  it  does  not 
appear  contrary  to  reason  or  the  dictates  of  Scripture  to  sup¬ 
pose  that  even  the  felicity  of  the  Deity  may,  in  a  certain 
limited  and  modified  sense,  be  susceptible  of  augmentation.* 

*  It  is  declared  in  Psalm  cxlvii.  11:  “The  Lord  taketh  pleasure  ir 
them  that  fear  him,  in  those  that  hope  in  his  mercy  and  in  relation  tc 
Messiah  it  is  said,  “  Jehovah  is  well  pleased  for  his  righteousness’  sake.” 


ARGUMENTS  FOR  A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS.  233 


But  whatever  opinion  may  be  formed  on  this  point,  from  the 
constitution  of  finite  minds,  and  the  principles  and  desires 
implanted  in  them,  it  appears  necessary  to  their  progressive 
enjoyment  that  new  scenes  and  manifestations  of  Divine  per¬ 
fection  should  be  continually  opening  to  their  view ;  and  if 
the  universe  be  indefinitely  extended,  as  it  appears  to  be,  and 
if  new  worlds  are  continually  springing  up  under  the  creating 
hand  of  the  Omnipotent,  then  we  behold  a  prospect  of  pro¬ 
gressive  knowledge  and  enjoyment  suited  to  the  desires  and 
aspirations  of  intelligent  minds,  which  can  never  terminate 
throughout  all  the  future  periods  of  eternity.  It  is  indeed 
absurd  to  suppose  that  a  Being  without  beginning  and  with¬ 
out  end  should  have  his  attention  solely  or  chiefly  directed 
to  one  point  of  his  universe,  and  to  one  class  of  intelligences, 
u  to  whom,’5  in  point  of  number  and  of  rank,  “  they  are 
counted  as  nothing,  and  less  than  nothing,  and  vanity.55 

In  respect  to  a  Being,  then,  who  fills  the  infinity  of  space 
with  his  presence,  and  who  is  possessed  of  eternal  duration, 
it  is  nothing  more  than  what  is  consistent  with  these  attributes, 
and  what  we  should  naturally  expect,  that  his  empire  should 
stretch  over  the  regions  of  immensity,  and  that  it  should  be 
filled  with  innumerable  intelligences,  capable  of  appreciating 
his  power  and  goodness,  and  of  paying  a  tribute  of  gratitude 
and  adoration.  The  two  attributes  to  which  we  have  adverted 
could  never  be  thoroughly  displayed  to  finite  minds,  unless 
creation  were  extended  through  the  illimitable  tracks  of  space, 
and  new  creations  gradually  unfolding  themselves  to  view. 
Were  creation  as  limited  as  many  suppose,  were  it  confined 
chiefly  to  the  world  in  which  we  dwell,  and  the  beings  con¬ 
nected  with  it,  we  might  in  the  course  of  a  few  ages  be  said 
in  some  measure  to  comprehend  the  Creator,  having  explored 
all  the  displays  he  has  made  of  his  power,  wisdom,  and  good¬ 
ness  ;  for  we  know  nothing  more  of  the  Deity  than  the 
manifestations  he  has  made  of  himself  in  his  works  and  his 
moral  dispensations.  Every  thing  in  relation  to  man  and  his 
habitation  might  be  known  after  the  investigations  of  a  very 

In  reference  to  the  material  works  of  creation  it  is  said,  Psalm  civ.  31, 
“  The  glory  of  the  Lord  shall  endure  for  ever ;  the  Lord  shall  rejoice  in 
all  his  works.’’1  The  expression,  “  The  glory  of  the  Lord,”  denotes  the 
display  of  the  Divine  perfections  made  in  the  works  of  creation,  as  ia 
evident  from  the  subject  of  the  psalm  in  which  it  occurs,  which  celebrates 
the  power,  wisdom,  and  providence  of  God,  in  relation  to  the  objects  of 
the  visible  world.  In  reference  to  these  objects  it  is  said,  “The  Lord 
shall  rejoice ”  m  them,  which  seems  to  imply,  speaking  after  the  manner 
of  men,  a  degree  of  pleasure  or  satisfaction  in  beholding  his  wise  and 
benevolent  plans,  and  his  eternal  purposes,  brought  into  effect  and  fulfill¬ 
ing  the  ends  intended. 

20* 


234 


WISDOM  OF  THE  DEITY. 


limited  number  of  ages,  and  nothing  further  would  remain  to 
stimulate  the  exercise  of  the  rational  faculties  throughout  all 
the  succeeding  periods  of  infinite  duration.  But  we  may  rest 
assured  that  the  Divine  Being  is  absolutely  incomprehensible, 
and  that  no  created  intelligence  will  ever  be  able  to  sound  the 
depth  of  his  perfections,  or  to  trace  the  full  extent  of  his  opera¬ 
tions. 

3.  It  is  more  accordant  with  the  wisdom  of  the  Deity  that 
the  universe  should  be  inhabited  by  intelligent  minds,  than 
that  it  should  remain  in  a  state  of  perpetual  desolation  and 
solitude. 

Could  it  be  proved  that  the  planets  of  the  solar  system, 
and  all  the  other  magnificent  globes  which  are  dispersed 
throughout  creation,  are  only  rude  masses  of  matter,  without 
life  and  intelligence,  it  would  confound  all  our  ideas  of  the 
intelligence  of  the  Divine  mind.  Wisdom  is  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the  eternal  and  essential  attributes 
of  the  Divinity.  But  how  could  the  glory  of  this  attribute  be 
traced  from  the  contemplation  of  a  mass  of  mere  inanimate 
matter,  however  vast  and  splendid  in  its  general  aspect,  when 
no  end  or  design  of  its  creation  is  perceived  ?  Where  should 
we  be  enabled  to  perceive  the  nice  adaptation  of  means  to 
ends  ?  the  harmonious  operation  of  principles  and  causes  pro¬ 
ducing  grand  and  beneficent  effects  ?  the  accomplishment  of 
glorious  and  useful  designs  by  admirable  arrangements  ?  We 
could  only  behold  a  vast  and  stupendous  assemblage  of  means 
without  an  end  ;  or,  at  least,  without  an  end  corresponding  to 
their  magnitude  and  grandeur.  We  should  behold  merely  a 
display  of  boundless  and  uncontrollable  'power  acting  at  ran¬ 
dom,  and  producing  no  effect  which  could  excite  the  love  and 
adoration  of  holy  intelligences.  For  what  could  they  behold 
to  excite  such  emotions,  although  they  were  permitted  to 
make  the  tour  of  the  universe  ?  Scenes  of  emptiness  and  de¬ 
solation,  of  silence  and  solitude,  where  no  sound  is  heard, 
where  no  animated  being  enlivens  the  boundless  prospect, 
where  no  interchange  of  sentiment  or  affection  can  take  place, 
and  where  no  praises  from  adoring  worshippers  ever  ascend 
to  the  Ruler  of  the  skies.  A  rational  being  traversing  scenes 
of  this  description  would  feel  as  little  enjoyment  as  a  bewil¬ 
dered  traveller,  amidst  storms  and  tempests,  wandering  over  a 
vast  howling  wilderness,  where  human  feet  had  never  trod, 
and  where  the  sweet  accents  of  the  human  voice  are  never 
heard  to  cheer  the  surrounding  solitude. 

But  when  we  view  the  magnificent  globes  which  are  scat¬ 
tered  throughout  immensity  as  replenished  with  numerous  or- 


GOODNESS  OF  THE  DEITY. 


235 


ders  of  intelligent  beings,  we  behold  an  end  worthy  of  the 
grandeur  of  the  means  which  have  been  employed,  worthy  of 
the  omnipotent  power  which  has  been  exerted,  and  corres¬ 
ponding  to  the  perfections  of  him  who  is  u  the  only  wise 
God,”  who  is  u  wonderful  in  counsel,  and  excellent  in  work¬ 
ing.”  We  behold  a  display  of  Divine  wisdom  and  munifi¬ 
cence  which  is  calculated  to  arrest  the  attention  and  draw 
forth  the  admiration  of  all  rational  beings,  and  to  excite  the 
most  ardent  desires  of  beholding  the  distant  scenes  of  the 
universe  more  completely  unfolded — a  display  calculated  to 
gratify  intelligences  of  the  highest  order  and  of  the  most  capa¬ 
cious  powers,  to  excite  them  to  the  most  sublime  investiga¬ 
tions,  and  to  inspire  them  with  emotions  of  love,  reverence, 
and  adoration  of  Him  who  created  all  worlds,  and  for  whose 
pleasure  they  are  and  were  created. 

4.  The  idea  of  the  universe  being  replenished  with  sensi¬ 
tive  and  intellectual  existence  is  accordant  with  every  rational 
view  we  can  take  of  the  goodness  or  benevolence  of  the  Deity. 

The  goodness  of  God  is  that  attribute  of  his  nature  by 
which  he  delights  to  communicate  happiness  to  all  the  ranks 
of  his  sentient  and  intelligent  offspring.  Like  every  other  at¬ 
tribute  of  the  Divine  mind,  it  is  strictly  boundless  or  infinite, 
co-extensive  with  the  eternal  greatness  of  that  mind,  and  com¬ 
mensurate  with  infinite  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  omnipotence. 
The  benevolence  of  the  Deity  may  be  said  to  constitute 
his  whole  moral  character,  and  to  reflect  a  radiance  on  all  his 
other  perfections.  To  his  love  of  happiness,  as  it  now  exists 
among  every  order  of  his  creatures,  and  to  his  desire  of  pro¬ 
ducing  it  in  all  his  future  arrangements,  no  possible  limits  can 
be  affixed.  Hence,  in  the  sacred  records,  the  Divine  Being  is 
summarily  described  by  this  perfection  alone,  u  God  is  love .” 
It  is  not  merely  asserted  that  God  is  benevolent,  but  that  he  is 
benevolence  itself.  Benevolence  is  the  essence  of  his  being 
and  character — a  summary  of  every  thing  that  can  render  him 
amiable  and  adorable  in  the  eyes  of  all  his  intelligent  crea¬ 
tures.  This  benevolence  is  permanent  and  immutable,  and 
must  be  for  ever  active  in  distributing  blessings  wherever 
percipient  beings  exist.  As  it  consists  in  the  love  of  happi¬ 
ness,  and  the  desire  of  communicating  it  wherever  there  is 
scope  for  its  exercise ;  as  it  is  the  boundless  energy  of  the 
infinite  Mind  in  unceasingly  doing  good,  it  must  be  displayed, 
in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  wherever  matter  exists,  and  wher¬ 
ever  wisdom  and  omnipotence  have  been  exerted  throughout 
the  universe.  We  know  that  it  is  incessantly  displayed 
throughout  all  the  departments  of  our  terrestrial  system,  m  tne 


$36 


GOODNESS  OF  THE  DEITY. 


ample  provision  made  for  the  wants  of  every  species  of  ani¬ 
mated  existence,  in  44  giving”  the  various  tribes  of  men  44  rain 
from  heaven  and  fruitful  seasons,  and  filling  their  hearts  with 
food  and  gladness ;”  and,  in  a  wonderful  diversity  of  modes, 
distributing  enjoyment  among  percipient  beings.  It  is  cele¬ 
brated  in  the  highest  strains  by  the  inspired  writers  as  one  of 
the  most  glorious  and  distinguishing  characteristics  of  Jeho¬ 
vah.  44  The  Lord  is  good  to  all ;  his  tender  mercies  are  over 
all  his  'works.”  44  He  is  merciful,  and  gracious,  and  abundant 
in  goodness.”  44  His  bounty  is  great  above  the  heavens,”  and 
44  he  exercises  loving  kindness  throughout  the  earth.”  44  O 
give  thanks  to  the  Lord,  for  he  is  good,  for  his  mercy  en- 
dureth  for  ever.” 

But  however  great  and  inexhaustible  the  source  of  happi¬ 
ness  in  the  Divine  mind,  the  exercise  of  goodness  necessarily 
supposes  the  existence  of  sensitive  or  rational  beings ,  towards 
whom  benevolence  may  be  displayed.  Where  no  such  beings 
are  to  be  found,  this  attribute  cannot  be  exercised  or  traced  in 
its  operation.  Mountains  and  plains,  rocks  of  marble  and 
diamonds,  or  valleys  adorned  with  all  manner  of  precious 
stones,  however  rich  and  splendid,  cannot  feel  the  effects  of 
Divine  beneficence.  If,  therefore,  the  numerous  globes 
throughout  the  universe  were  destitute  of  inhabitants,  there 
would  be  no  extensive  display  of  this  essential  perfection  of 
the  Divine  nature ;  and  to  those  few  intelligences  who  might 
be  permitted  to  view  the  desolate  wastes  of  the  universe,  or  to 
receive  information  respecting  them,  it  would  appear  as  if  the 
Divine  goodness  had  either  been  exhausted  or  had  ceased  its 
operations,  and  been  withdrawn  from  the  scene  of  crea¬ 
tion,  as  if  44  the  Lord  had  forgotten  to  be  gracious,  and  in 
anger  shut  up  his  tender  mercies.”  We  have  reason,  how¬ 
ever,  to  believe,  both  from  scripture  and  from  reason,  that  it 
is  the  great  end  of  all  the  operations  of  Deity  that  a  theatre 
may  be  prepared  on  which  the  emanations  of  his  goodness 
may  be  communicated  to  innumerable  orders  of  beings 
throughout  his  vast  creation.  There  is  no  other  conceivable 
end  for  which  the  fabric  of  universal  nature  was  reared  than 
that  it  should  serve  as  a  scene  of  enjoyment  to  innumerable 
beings  susceptible  of  feeling  the  effects  of  the  Creator’s 
bounty,  and  that  therein  they  might  behold  a  magnificent 
display  of  the  grandeur  of  his  eternal  attributes ;  but  if  by  far 
the  greater  part  of  creation  were  uninhabited,  such  an  end 
would  be  frustrated.  However  expansive  the  scene  of  the 
universe  may  be — however  numerous  and  magnificent  the 
worlds  and  systems  which  exist  within  its  boundless  range, 


PLURALITY  OP  WORLDS. 


237 


the  glories  of  Omnipotence  would  remain  for  ever  veiled  and 
unknown,  except  to  a  small  race  of  beings  who  occupy  only 
a  point  in  the  immensity  of  space,  and  who  cannot  possibly 
be  acquainted  with  the  ten-thousandth  part  of  the  scenes 
which  lie  in  the  remoter  spaces  of  creation. 

If,  therefore,  we  would  not  rob  the  Divinity  of  the  most 
distinguishing  attribute  of  his  nature,  we  must  admit  that 
wherever  creation  extends,  his  goodness  and  beneficence  are 
displayed,  and,  consequently,  that  intelligent  beings  of  various 
orders  must  exist  throughout  all  its  amplitudes.  Wherever 
power  and  wisdom  are  displayed,  it  ought  to  be  considered 
as  a  necessary  consequence  that  there  also  goodness  is  exer¬ 
cised,  as  the  one  is  subsidiary  to  the  other,  and  stands  related 
as  means  to  an  end,  or  as  cause  to  effect.  It  would  be  a  most 
glaring  inconsistency  to  suppose  that  the  Divine  benevolence 
is  confined  to  one  or  two  worlds  or  orders  of  beings,  when 
millions  of  expansive  systems  diversify  the  fields  of  immensity  • 
more  especially  when  we  consider  that  the  goodness  of  the 
Deity  is  of  so  communicative  a  nature  that  all  the  interval  be¬ 
tween  a  polypus  and  a  man  is  filled  with  thousands  of  species 
of  animated  beings,  of  every  conceivable  form,  and  structure, 
and  capacity,  in  order  that  happiness  of  every  degree  may  be 
diffused  among  every  possible  order  of  sentient  existence. 
Every  element  of  nature,  every  department  of  our  terrestrial 
system,  forms  an  appropriate  abode  for  living  beings.  The 
air,  the  waters,  and  the  earth  teem  with  animated  existence  of 
every  size  and  form,  and  in  such  vast  multitudes  as  to  exceed 
all  human  calculation;  and  if  the  displays  of  Divine  goodness 
be  thus  exuberant  in  our  sublunary  world,  it  would  be  absurd 
in  the  highest  degree  to  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  mil¬ 
lions  of  vast  globes  which  roll  in  the  distant  regions  of  crea¬ 
tion  are  devoid  of  inhabitants,  since  the  communication  of 
happiness  appears  to  be  one  great  end  of  all  the  operations  of 
infinite  wisdom  and  omnipotence. 

Thus  it  appears  that  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is 
not  only  accordant  with  every  rational  view  we  ought  to  en¬ 
tertain  of  the  eternity  and  immensity,  the  wisdom  and  good¬ 
ness,  of  the  Divine  Being,  but  that  the  opposite  opinion  would 
be  repugnant  to  every  consistent  and  scriptural  view  we  can 
take  of  the  character  of  the  Supreme,  and  would  obscure  the 
glory  of  every  divine  perfection.  This  view,  therefore,  of  the 
universe,  considered  as  replenished  with  innumerable  intelli¬ 
gences,  is  calculated  to  exhibit  a  more  glorious  and  magnificent, 
idea  of  the  character  and  operations  of  the  Deity  than  to 
supp  >se  his  benevolent  regards  confined  to  the  globe  on  which 


238 


UNITY  OF  DESIGN  AND  OPERATION. 


we  dwell.  Instead  of  having  only  one  comparatively  small 
world  and  race  of  beings  under  his  sway,  we  here  contemplate 
him  as  the  supreme  ruler  of  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousands 
of  mighty  worlds,  and  conducting  them  all,  with  unerring 
skill,  in  their  vast  career.  We  behold  him  exercising  his 
moral  administration  over  a  vast  universe  of  minds ,  more  nu¬ 
merous  than  the  faculties  of  men  or  of  angelic  beings  are  ade¬ 
quate  to  compute,  supporting  and  directing  all  the  amazing 
powers  of  thought,  wisdom,  intelligence,  affection,  and  moral 
action,  throughout  every  part  of  his  eternal  empire,  displaying 
the  depths  of  his  wisdom  and  intelligence,  the  rectitude  of  his 
character,  and  the  grandeur  of  his  omnipotence  to  countless 
orders  of  intellectual  existence,  presenting  before  them  pros¬ 
pects  of  magnificence  and  grandeur  boundless  as  immensity, 
distributing  among  them  all  the  riches  of  his  beneficence,  and 
inspiring  them  with  the  hope  that  the  grandeur  of  his  king¬ 
dom  and  the  glory  of  his  perfections  will  continue  to  be  dis¬ 
played  with  increasing  splendour  throughout  all  the  periods 
of  an  endless  duration.  Such  a  Being  is  calculated  to  draw 
forth  the  highest  degree  of  love  and  admiration  from  all  his 
intelligent  offspring,  to  inspire  them  with  glowing  ardour  in 
his  service,  and  to  excite  them  to  incessant  adoration  ;  where¬ 
as,  did  the  universe  consist  merely  of  a  boundless  mass  of 
matter  without  animation,  thought,  or  intelligence,  a  veil  of 
darkness  and  mystery  would  be  thrown  over  all  the  perfec¬ 
tions  and  purposes  of  the  Divinity ;  creation  would  appear  a 
vast,  mysterious,  and  inexplicable  system  ;  and  no  hope  would 
ever  be  entertained  of  tracing  the  designs  for  which  it  was 
brought  into  existence. 

II.  Another  general  argument  for  a  plurality  of  worlds,  and 
for  an  extensive  population  of  the  universe,  may  be  founded 
on  the  following  proposition, — that  ivherever  any  one  perfec¬ 
tion  of  Deity  is  exerted ,  there  also  all  his  attributes  are  in 
operation ,  and  must  be  displayed,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 
to  certain  orders  of  intelligences.  This  is  a  most  important 
consideration,  which  ought  to  be  taken  into  account  in  all 
our  views  of  the  Divine  character,  and  in  all  our  investiga¬ 
tions  of  the  Divine  administration — a  consideration  which  is 
too  frequently  overlooked  in  the  views  and  reasonings  both 
of  philosophers  and  theologians. 

The  Divine  Being  is  one  undivided  essence ;  he  is  not 
compounded  of  separable  parts  or  qualities,  insulated  from 
each  other.  We  ought  not,  therefore,  to  conceive  of  his  at¬ 
tributes  as  so  many  independent  powers  or  properties,  any 
one  of  which  may  be  exerted  without  the  concurrence  or  co- 


* 


UNITY  OF  DESIGN  AND  OPERATION.  239 

operation  of  the  other.  From  the  limited  views  we  too  fre¬ 
quently  take  of  the  Divinity,  and  from  the  imperfection  of 
our  present  faculties,  we  are  apt  to  fall  into  this  mistake;  but 
since  all  the  perfections  we  attribute  to  the  Eternal  Mind  are 
attributes  of  one  indivisible  and  uncompounded  Being,  we 
ought  never  to  imagine  that  poiver  in  any  instance  operates 
without  goodness ,  or  wisdom  without  rectitude ,  or  that  it  can 
ever  happen  that  any  one  of  those  perfections  can  be  displayed 
without  the  harmonious  operation  of  the  whole.  In  whatever 
regions  of  the  universe,  therefore,  God  is  seen  to  operate  by 
his  power,  we  may  rest  assured  that  there  also  he  displays 
himself  in  the  plenitude  of  all  his  other  perfections ;  that 
intelligence,  wisdom,  benevolence,  veracity,  and  rectitude 
follow  in  the  train  of  omnipotence,  displaying  in  undivided 
lustre  and  harmony  the  glories  of  his  character.  It  is  God, 
invested  with  all  his  eternal  and  immutable,  his  natural  and 
moral  attributes,  and  not  any  single  perfection,  that  acts,  ar¬ 
ranges,  and  governs  throughout  the  whole  amplitude  of  crea¬ 
tion  ;  and  as  such,  his  moral  grandeur,  as  well  as  the  physical 
effects  of  his  power,  must  be  displayed  in  every  department 
of  the  material  universe.  From  the  influence  of  habit,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  limited  faculties  of  our  nature,  we  are 
accustomed  to  say,  that  in  one  object  power  is  displayed,  and 
in  another  that  wisdom  is  manifested ;  because,  that  in  the 
one  the  attribute  of  power  appears  to  us  most  prominent,  and 
in  the  other,  wisdom  is  more  strikingly  apparent.  A  lofty 
range  of  mountains,  rearing  their  summits  above  the  clouds, 
and  stretching  along  for  several  hundreds  of  miles,  strikes  the 
mind  with  an  idea  of  power  in  Him  who  formed  them ;  but 
the  fine  mechanism,  accomplishing  certain  useful  purposes  in 
the  body  of  an  emmet  or  a  gnat,  or  the  delicate  construction 
of  the  eye  of  a  dragon-fly,  arrests  our  attention  more  par¬ 
ticularly  as  an  evidence  of  wisdom,  although  in  each  of  these 
cases  both  power  and  wisdom  are  displayed.  In  no  act  or 
operation  whatever  of  the  Divine  Being  can  it  be  said,  that  in 
that  act  he  is  only  wise,  or  only  powerful,  or  only  benevo¬ 
lent;  for  in  every  operation,  and  in  every  part  of  his  proce¬ 
dure,  he  acts  in  the  plenitude  of  all  his  essential  attributes, 
although  the  full  display  of  all  his  perfections  may  not,  in 
every  instance,  be  open  to  our  inspection. 

If,  then,  the  positions  now  stated  be  admitted,  (and  I  see 
not  how  they  can  be  called  in  question,)  it  necessarily  fol¬ 
lows  that  all  the  vast  globes  dispersed  throughout  the  universe 
are  either  inhabited  or  contribute,  as  our  sun  does,  to  the 
comfort  and  enjoyment  of  percipient  existence;  for  if  wis- 


240 


ABSURDITY  INVOLVED  IN  DENYING 


dom  and  goodness  uniformly  and  of  necessity  accompany  the 
agency  of  power,  and  if  these  attributes  can  be  exercised  only 
in  relation  to  sentient  or  intelligent  beings,  such  beings  must 
exist  wherever  such  perfections  are  exercised.  To  suppose 
the  contrary  would  involve  a  palpable  absurdity,  and  present 
a  distorted  and  inconsistent  view  of  the  adorable  character  of 
Jehovah. 

In  our  survey  of  the  sidereal  heavens,  and  the  remoter  pro¬ 
vinces  of  the  Divine  empire,  we  behold  little  more  than  an 
overwhelming  display  of  almighty  power.  Our  remoteness 
from  those  magnificent  scenes  prevents  us  from  tracing  the 
minute  contrivances  of  Divine  Wisdom  in  relation  to  any 
particular  system,  or  the  displays  of  Divine  Beneficence  to¬ 
wards  its  inhabitants.  But  our  incapacity  of  perceiving  the 
effects  of  wisdom  and  goodness  forms  no  argument  against 
the  actual  exercise  of  these  perfections.  If  it  be  admitted 
that  infinite  wisdom  and  benevolence  are  the  necessary  ac¬ 
companiments  of  almighty  power,  we  may  rest  assured  that 
those  perfections  are  in  full  and  constant  exercise  wherever 
creating  power  has  been  exerted,  although,  from  our  present 
situation  in  the  universe,  their  operation  be  concealed  from 
our  view.  In  every  instance  where  Omnipotence  has  put 
forth  its  energies,  it  may  be  considered  as  a  stage  or  theatre 
on  which  the  Divine  wisdom  and  benevolence  may  be  dis¬ 
played.  And  as  wisdom  and  goodness  can  only  have  a  refer¬ 
ence  to  percipient  and  intelligent  beings,  wherever  those 
perfections  are  exercised,  such  beings  must  necessarily  be 
conceived  to  exist ;  otherwise,  we  in  effect  destroy  the  sim¬ 
plicity  of  the  Divine  nature,  we  divide  the  Divine  essence 
into  so  many  independent  attributes,  and  virtually  declare  that 
in  the  work  of  creation  the  Deity  does  not  act  in  the  full 
exercise  of  his  indivisible  and  eternal  perfections. 

The  above  considerations,  if  duly  weighed  and  understood, 
appear  to  me  to  embody  an  argument  for  the  doctrine  of  an 
indefinite  plurality  of  worlds  which  may  be  considered  as 
amounting  to  a  moral  demonstration. 

III.  There  is  an  absurdity  involved  in  the  contrary  supposi¬ 
tion — namely,  that  the  distant  regions  of  creation  are  devoid 
of  inhabitants. 

1.  There  are  two  modes  of  reasoning  which  have  been 
employed  to  prove  the  truth  of  a  proposition:  the  direct 
method,  by  bringing  forward  arguments,  or  following  out  a 
train  of  reasoning  bearing  expressly  on  the  position  to  be 
supported ;  or,  the  indirect  method,  by  shewing  the  absurdity 
of  maintaining  the  opposite  position.  Mathematicians  term 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS.  241 

this  latter  species  of  reasoning  the  reductio  ad  absurdum ,  and 
sometimes  employ  it  instead  of  the  direct  method,  by  shewing 
that  the  contrary  of  the  position  laid  down  is  impossible,  or 
involves  an  absurdity ;  and  this  method  of  proof  is  con¬ 
sidered  as  valid,  and  as  strictly  demonstrative  as  the  other ; 
for  the  opposite  of  truth  must  be  falsehood.  If,  therefore, 
any  proposition,  whether  mathematical  or  moral,  can  be 
shewn  to  involve  an  absurdity,  or  to  be  inconsistent  with  a 
well-known  and  acknowledged  truth,  or  directly  contrary  to 

To  feel  the  force  of  such  an  argument  in  the  present  case, 
let  us  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the  planetary  and  stellar 
orbs  are  destitute  of  inhabitants.  What  would  be  the  conse¬ 
quences  ?  All  those  vast  bodies  must  then  be  considered  as 
regions  of  eternal  silence,  solitude,  and  desolation.  The  sun 
illuminates  the  surfaces  of  such  huge  globes  as  Jupiter  and 
Saturn,  but  there  are  no  visual  organs  to  perceive  the  lustre 
he  throws  around,  no  percipient  beings  to  feel  the  influence 
of  his  heat  and  other  benign  agencies.  Time  is  measured 
with  exquisite  precision  by  days,  and  months,  and  years,  but 
all  to  no  purpose ;  for  no  rational  beings  enjoy  the  advantage 
of  such  measures  of  the  lapse  of  time,  and  the  Deity — to 
whom  “  one  day  is  as  a  thousand  years,  and  a  thousand  years 
as  one  day” — stands  in  no  need  of  such  movements  to  mark 
the  periods  of  duration.  Day  and  night,  spring  and  summer, 
succeed  each  other,  but  they  have  no  relation  to  the  wants  or 
enjoyments  of  sensitive  or  intellectual  natures.  The  melody 
of  the  groves,  the  bleating  of  flocks,  the  lowing  of  herds,  the 
harmonious  accents  of  human  voices,  or  the  music  of  angelic 
choirs,  never  for  a  moment  disturb  the  profound  and  awful 
silence  which  for  ever  prevails ;  not  a  single  murmur  meets 
the  ear,  unless  howling  winds,  amidst  dreary  deserts  and 
rugged  rocks,  should  render  the  scene  still  more  hideous  and 
doleful.  Some  of  those  mighty  globes  are  encircled  with 
splendid  rings  and  a  retinue  of  moons,  which  adorn  the 
canopy  of  the  sky,  and  present  a  scene  of  grandeur  far  more 
diversified  and  sublime  than  human  eyes  have  yet  beheld,  but 
no  intelligent  agents  exist  in  those  regions  to  admire  and 
enjoy  the  wondrous  spectacle  and  to  adore  the  great  Creator. 
In  short,  all  is  one  wide  scene  of  dreariness,  desolation,  hor¬ 
ror,  and  silence,  which  would  fill  a  spectator  from  this  world 
with  terror  and  dismay. 

Were  an  inhabitant  of  earth  to  be  transported  to  Jupiter  or 
Saturn,  he  might  behold  resplendent  scenes  in  the  canopy  of 

Vol.  VIII.  21 


it,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  such  a  proposition  must  be 
false. 


242 


ABSURDITY  INVOLVED  IN  DENYING 


the  firmament ;  but  how  great  would  be  his  disappointment 
to  find  nothing  but  boundless  deserts  and  desolate  wastes, 
without  one  sentient  being  to  cheer  the  horrors  of  the  scene, 
and  not  a  rational  intelligence  to  communicate  a  single  senti¬ 
ment  or  to  join  him  in  the  contemplation  of  the  objects  above 
and  around  him ;  and  were  he  to  range  throughout  an  indefi¬ 
nite  lapse  of  ages  from  one  globe  to  another,  and  from  one 
corner  of  the  universe  to  another,  and  find  the  same  gloomy 
solitudes  and  desolations,  he  could  find  no  stimulus  to  excite 
him  to  admiration  or  rapture,  or  to  elevate  his  soul  in  adora¬ 
tion  of  the  Creator.  Even  the  most  resplendent  scenes, 
adorned  with  all  the  riches  and  beauties  which  the  most 
lively  imagination  can  depict, — mountains  of  "  diamonds  and 
plains  diversified  with  all  the  beauties  of  the  vegetable  crea¬ 
tion, — could  impart  no  real  pleasure  while  unenlivened  with 
the  principle  of  animation  and  the  energies  of  mind.  What  a 
gloomy  and  horrible  picture  would  such  a  scene  present  of 
the  frame  of  universal  nature,  and  what  a  veil  of  darkness  and 
mystery  would  it  throw  over  the  perfections  of  the  Eternal ! 
for  it  is  the  scenes  connected  with  life,  animation,  mental  ac¬ 
tivity,  and  moral  sentiment,  glowing  affection,  social  inter¬ 
course,  and  the  mutual  sympathies  of  intellectual  beings,  that 
can  alone  inspire  the  soul  with  rapturous  emotions,  throw  a 
charm  over  any  part  of  creation,  and  exhibit  the  Almighty 
Creator  as  amiable  and  adorable.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  rela¬ 
tion  in  which  the  material  world  stands  to  sensitive  and  intel¬ 
lectual  existence  that  its  beauty  and  order  are  recognised  and 
admired  by  contemplative  minds,  and  that  the  wisdom  and 
beneficence  of  the  Deitv  are  traced  in  all  their  minute  and 
multifarious  bearings.  In  our  world,  as  it  now  stands,  the 
arrangement  of  mountains  and  vales,  the  various  properties  of 
the  watery  element,  and  its  transmutation  into  vapours,  clouds, 
and  dew,  the  admirable  mechanism  of  the  atmosphere,  the  fer¬ 
tility  of  the  earth,  and  the  beautiful  colouring  which  is  spread 
over  the  face  of  nature, — which  are  productive  of  so  many 
beneficial  effects,  and  so  evidently  display  the  wisdom  of 
Deity,— would  all  appear  as  so  many  means  without  an  end, 
as  contrivances  without  use ,  if  the  earth  were  destitute  of  in¬ 
habitants.  And  if  all  the  other  departments  of  creation  were 
likewise  devoid  of  animation  and  intelligence,  scarcely  a  trace 
would  be  left  throughout  boundless  space  of  the  wisdom  and 
benevolence  of  the  Eternal  Mind. 

2.  In  the  next  place,  such  a  position  as  that  which  I  am 
now  opposing  would  be  inconsistent  with  that  principle  of 
variety  which  appears  so  conspicuous  throughout  the  whole 


A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS. 


243 


range  of  the  Divine  operations,  and  with  that  progressive  ex¬ 
pansion  of  intellectual  views  which  appears  necessary  to  the 
perpetual  enjoyment  of  immortal  beings. 

In  order  to  permanent  enjoyment  it  is  necessary,  from  the 
very  constitution  of  the  mind,  that  one  scene  of  happiness 
should  succeed  another, — that  the  soul  should  look  forward 
to  the  future,  to  something  new  or  more  grand  and  expansive 
that  it  has  yet  beheld  or  enjoyed.  It  can  never  rest  in  pre¬ 
sent  objects  and  attainments,  but  is  always  on  the  wing  for 
something  higher  and  more  exquisite  than  it  has  yet  grasped 
or  enjoyed.  What  is  the  reason,  in  most  cases,  why  imprison¬ 
ment  produces  so  doleful  an  effect  upon  the  mind,  but  because 
its  views  and  its  actions  are  confined  to  a  narrow  circle  ? 
And  if  in  such  a  situation  newspapers,  books,  paper,  pens  and 
ink,  be  withheld,  so  as  still  further  to  circumscribe  the  men¬ 
tal  view,  its  Want  of  enjoyment  and  its  misery  are  still  more 
increased.  Why  would  a  literary  man  feel  unhappiness  had 
he  no  access  to  books,  journals,  and  the  periodicals  of  the 
day,  nor  any  other  means  of  information  respecting  passing 
events,  but  because  he  would  thus  be  confined  to  his  present 
range  of  view,  and  prevented  from  enlarging  it  ?  And  why 
should  the  man  who  devours  the  periodical  journal  to-day 
feel  as  craving  desires  to-morrow  to  peruse  similar  records  of 
intelligence,  to  mark  the  progress  of  passing  events,  but  from 
the  same  vehement  desire  to  expand  his  present  intellectual 
views  ?  Were  such  desires  to  remain  ungratified,  and  the 
prospect  of  further  information  entirely  shut  up,  a  certain  de¬ 
gree  of  misery  would  necessarily  be  felt  by  every  rational, 
mind.  In  another  world,  something  similar  would  happen  in 
the  case  of  all  intellectual  beings,  were  no  new  scenes  and 
prospects  ever  unfolded  to  view. 

Divines  have  generally  admitted  that  the  eternal  world,  in 
the  case  of  the  righteous,  will  be  a  state  of  perpetual  and  un¬ 
interrupted  enjoyment.  Such  enjoyment,  however,  could 
never  be  realized,  unless  new  scenes  and  objects,  worthy  of 
the  admiration  of  exalted  intelligences,  were  progressively 
displayed.  But  the  contemplation  of  rude  masses  of  matter, 
however  vast  in  point  of  size  and  extent,  and  however  magni¬ 
ficent  in  point  of  splendour,  were  they  entirely  unconnected 
with  mind  and  moral  action,  would  produce  no  high  degree 
of  enjoyment  to  beings  possessed  of  capacious  powers  of  in¬ 
tellect;  for  in  such  objects  they  could  trace  no  evidences  of 
skill  or  design,  nor  would  they  perceive  any  overflowings  of 
Divine  goodness  to  inspire  them  with  gratitude  and  praise. 
We  are  warranted  from  Revelation  to  expect  that  in  the  future 


244  HARMONY  OF  THE  DIVINE  PERFECTIONS. 

world  the  knowledge  of  good  men  will  be  indefinitely  in¬ 
creased,  in  respect  to  their  more  enlarged  conceptions  of  the 
Divine  Being,  and  of  his  works  and  ways ;  that,  among  other 
subjects,  they  shall  become  more  acquainted  with  the  distant 
regions  of  creation,  the  destination  of  those  great  globes 
which  we  now  behold  at  an  impassable  distance,  the  history 
of  their  inhabitants,  the  various  stages  of  improvement 
through  which  they  have  passed,  the  most  remarkable  events 
which  have  happened  among  them  since  their  creation,  the 
relations  which  the  different  worlds  bear  to  each  other,  the 
various  orders  of  intellectual  beings  and  their  distinctive 
characteristics  and  endowments,  with  many  other  particulars 
which  would  afford  an  ample  field  of  investigation  and  con¬ 
templation  which  could  scarcely  ever  be  exhausted,  and  a 
source  of  progressive  and  permanent  delight.  But  all  such 
prospects  of  knowledge  and  enjoyment  would  be  for  ever 
shut  out,  were  the  universe  a  collection  of  mere  matter  un¬ 
connected  with  mind  or  intelligence,  and  the  distant  view  of 
an  immortal  existence  would  present  little  else  than  a  scene 
of  monotony  or  a  boundless  blank. 

In  the  future  world,  although  the  circumstances  in  which 
the  mind  will  exist  will  be  different  from  its  present  local 
associations,  yet  its  faculties,  desires,  and  affections,  will  not 
be  essentially  changed.  It  will  continue  the  same  identical 
being,  only  transported  to  another  region,  and  connected  with 
other  objects  and  associations.  It  will  have  the  same  or  simi¬ 
lar  aspirations  after  happiness,  the  same  desires  after  new  ob¬ 
jects  and  discoveries,  and  the  expansion  of  its  intellectual 
views,  and  the  same  delight  in  beholding  one  scene  of  creat¬ 
ing  grandeur  after  another  unfolding  itself  to  view,  as  it  feels, 
in  a  certain  degree,  in  the  present  state.  Such  desires  after 
progressive  improvement  in  knowledge  and  happiness  are  im¬ 
planted  by  the  Creator,  and  form  an  essential  part  of  the  con¬ 
stitution  of  the  human  soul,  and  therefore  can  never  be  eradi¬ 
cated  so  long  as  it  is  sustained  in  existence.  But  it  is  evident, 
from  what  has  been  already  stated,  that  such  desires  could 
never  be  gratified,  and  that  its  expectations  of  higher  degrees 
of  intellectual  expansion  and  enjoyment  would  be  frustrated, 
were  the  scene  of  Omnipotence  nothing  more  than  an  indefi¬ 
nite  extension  of  matter  without  life  or  intelligence ;  for  in 
such  a  case  there  would  be  little  scope  for  the  exercise  and 
expansion  of  its  powers  throughout  an  immortal  existence. 

3.  The  supposition  that  matter  throughout  the  universe  is 
not  connected  with  mind  would  present  a  distorted  view  of 
the  character  of  the  Almighty,  and  throw  a  veil  over  the  most 


HARMONY  OP  THE  DIVINE  PERFECTIONS.  245 

glorious  perfections  of  his  nature.  It  would  virtually  deprive 
the  Creator  of  the  attribute  of  wisdom ;  since  no  display  of  it 
would  be  perceived  in  the  most  magnificent  works  of  his 
hands.  It  would,  in  effect,  rob  him  of  his  goodness ;  since, 
throughout  the  mightiest  and  most  extensive  portion  of  his 
works,  no  enjoyment  is  communicated  to  beings  endowed 
with  either  sensitive  or  rational  natures,  which  are  alone  capa¬ 
ble  of  being  recipients  of  his  bounty  ;  consequently,  no  tribute 
of  gratitude  and  thanksgiving  would  be  offered,  and  no  praises 
or  adorations  would  ascend  to  the  throne  of  the  44  King  eter¬ 
nal,  immortal,  and  invisible,”  from  the  greatest  portion  of  his 
boundless  dominions.  It  would  prevent  us  from  beholding  any 
extensive  display  of  the  rectitude  of  his  character  and  the 
equity  of  his  government  in  the  moral  administration  of  the 
universe.  Now,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  rectitude,  can  only 
be  exercised  in  reference  to  intelligent  natures,  and  cannot 
possibly  be  displayed  where  such  beings  have  no  existence. 

The  denial  therefore  of  the  position,  that  the  great  universe  is 
peopled  with  inhabitants,  would  lead  us  to  contemplate  a  Being 
whose  power  has  brought  into  existence  a  magnificent  assem¬ 
blage  of  means  without  an  end;  who  has  prepared  glorious  ha¬ 
bitations  fitted  for  the  enjoyment  of  rational  natures,  but  has 
never  peopled  them  ;  who  is  the  alone  source  of  happiness,  and 
yet  refuses  to  communicate  of  his  goodness  where  there  is 
full  scope  for  its  exercise  ;  and  who  is  the  Supreme  Lawgiver 
and  the  spring  of  moral  order,  and  yet  affords  no  display  of 
his  moral  attributes  throughout  the  immensity  of  his  works : 
for  this  earth,  and  all  the  beings  that  have  ever  been  connected 
with  it,  are  but  as  a  drop  to  the  ocean  compared  with  the  im¬ 
mensity  of  the  material  universe.  Can  it  therefore  be  a  theatre 
of  sufficient  expansion  for  the  display  of  the  character  and  at¬ 
tributes  of  that  being  who  has  existed  from  eternity  past,  and 
will  exist  to  eternity  to  come,  and  whose  presence  fills  the 
amplitudes  of  boundless  space  ? 

If,  then,  such  absurd  consequences  necessarily  follow  from 
maintaining  the  position,  that  there  is  no  plurality  of  worlds, 
that  position  cannot  possibly  he  true.  It  undermines  truths  of 
the  first  importance,  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  all  consist¬ 
ent  views  of  the  character  of  the  Deity,  and  which  are  ac¬ 
knowledged  to  be  such  by  all  rational  theists  and  Christian 
divines.  And,  since  what  is  directly  opposed  to  truth  must 
be  error,  and  vice  versa ,  it  follows  that  the  doctrine  we  are 
supporting  must  be  considered  as  susceptible  of  moral  demon¬ 
stration  ;  for  it  may  be  laid  down  as  an  axiom,  that  it  is  es¬ 
sential  to  the  character  of  Deity  that  he  act  consistently  in  all 

21* 


246 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS. 


parts  of  his  dominions,  that  he  display  m  every  instance  all 
his  perfections  in  harmony,  and  that  wherever  his  omnipotence 
has  been  exerted,  there  likewise  he  must  display  his  wusdom, 
benevolence,  and  rectitude.  Whatever  opinion  therefore  di¬ 
rectly  tends  to  undermine  or  oppose  such  views  of  the  Divine 
character  and  perfections  must  be  absolutely  untenable,  and 
the  opposite  opinion  must  be  indisputably  true. 

In  my  work  on  w  Celestial  Scenery”  I  entered  on  the  con¬ 
sideration  of  several  arguments  which  tend  to  prove  the  doc¬ 
trine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds,  and  that  the  planets  of  the  solar 
system  in  particular  are  the  abodes  of  intellectual  beings.  This 
position  was  illustrated  at  some  length  from  the  following 
considerations :  that  there  are  bodies  in  the  planetary  system 
of  such  magnitudes  as  to  afford  ample  scope  for  myriads  of 
inhabitants  ;  that  there  is  a  general  similarity  among  all  the 
bodies  of  the  system,  which  affords  a  presumptive  evidence 
that  they  are  intended  to  subserve  the  same  ultimate  designs ; 
that,  connected  with  the  planets,  there  are  certain  special  ar¬ 
rangements  which  indicate  their  adaptation  to  the  enjoy¬ 
ment  of  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings ;  that  the  scenery 
of  the  heavens,  as  viewed  from  the  surfaces  of  the  larger 
planets  and  their  satellites ,  forms  a  presumptive  proof  of  the 
same  position;  and  that  the  fact  that  every  part  of  nature  in 
our  world  is  destined  to  the  support  of  animated  beings ,  affords 
a  powerful  argument  in  support  of  this  doctrine.  These  argu¬ 
ments  and  considerations,  when  viewed  in  all  their  bearings, 
and  in  connexion  with  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  the  Divine 
Being,  might  be  considered,  without  any  further  discussions, 
as  quite  sufficient  to  substantiate  the  position,  that  the  planets 
and  satellites  of  our  system,  as  well  as  other  departments  of 
the  universe,  are  the  abodes  of  sensitive  and  intelligent  beings. 

In  the  preceding  pages  I  have  offered  a  few  additional  con¬ 
siderations  bearing  on  the  same  point,  which  I  trust  will  tend 
to  corroborate  the  arguments  and  reasoning  formerly  adduced. 
I  have  shewn  that  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  is 
more  worthy  of  the  perfections  of  the  infinite  Creator,  and 
gives  us  a  more  magnificent  idea  of  his  character  and  works, 
than  to  suppose  his  benevolent  regards  confined  to  our  com¬ 
paratively  diminutive  world;  that  it  is  more  accordant  with 
the  infinity  and  eternity  of  the  Divine  Being,  and  with  his 
wisdom  and  benevolence  than  the  opposite  position ;  that 
wherever  any  one  perfection  of  Deity  is  exerted,  there  also 
all  his  attributes  are  in  operation  ;  and  consequently,  wherever 
Omnipotence  is  seen  to  operate,  there  likewise,  wisdom,  be¬ 
nevolence,  rectitude,  and  every  other  Divine  perfection,  must 


SENTIMENTS  OF  THE  INSPIRED  WRITERS.  247 


be  displayed,  and  can  only  be  displayed  in  reference  to  intelli¬ 
gent  beings ;  that  there  is  an  absurdity  involved  in  the  con¬ 
trary  supposition  ;  that  this  supposition  would  represent  the 
universe  as  an  immense  desert,  unworthy  of  the  contemplation 
of  intelligent  minds ;  that  it  would  prevent  the  progressive 
expansion  of  intellectual  views  in  a  future  state,  and  present 
a  distorted  view  of  the  character  and  attributes  of  the  Almighty 
Creator.  All  these  arguments  and  considerations,  when  viewed 
in  a  proper  light,  tend  to  yield  a  mutual  support  to  each  other, 
they  hang  together  in  perfect  harmony,  and  they  are  in  full 
consistency  with  the  most  amiable  and  sublime  conceptions 
we  can  form  of  the  Divinity ;  and  therefore  ought  to  carry 
irresistible  conviction  to  the  mind  of  every  unbiassed  and  in¬ 
telligent  inquirer.  To  my  own  mind,  they  amount  to  a  moral 
demonstration ;  so  that  I  am  as  fully  convinced  of  the  truth 
of  the  position  we  have  been  maintaining,  as  if  I  were  trans¬ 
ported  to  the  regions  of  distant  worlds,  and  permitted  to  min¬ 
gle  in  association  with  their  inhabitants. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

A  PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED  FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION 

It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  persuade  the  greater  part  of 
mankind  that  there  are  any  habitable  worlds  besides  our  own, 
or  that  rational  beings,  somewhat  analogous  to  man,  may 
inhabit  the  planets  of  our  own  or  of  other  systems.  Even 
the  greater  part  of  Christians,  and  some  who  are  possessed  of 
a  considerable  degree  of  intelligence,  can  scarcely  be  per¬ 
suaded  that  there  are  more  worlds  than  one,  or  that  the  Divine 
government  extends  beyond  the  Christian  church  and  the 
nations  of  the  earth ;  and  they  attempt ,  to  vindicate  their 
opinion  by  asserting,  that  the  Scriptures  never  make  the  least 
allusion  to  any  world  except  that  in  which  we  dwell.  Al¬ 
though  this  were  in  reality  the  case,  it  would  form  no  argu¬ 
ment  against  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds ;  for  the 
revelations  contained  in  the  Scriptures  are  chiefly  of  a  moral 
nature,  their  great  object  being  to  counteract  the  depravity  of 
man,  and  to  afford  information  respecting  the  plans,  and  per¬ 
fections,  and  moral  government  of  the  Divine  Being,  which 
the  unassisted  light  of  nature  was  unable  to  explore.  They 


248  SENTIMENTS  OF  THE  INSPIRED  WRITERS. 


were  not  intended  to  teach  us  the  principles  of  physical 
science,  or  the  particular  knowledge  of  any  other  subject 
which  the  human  faculties  were  of  themselves  adequate  to 
acquire ;  but  to  direct  us,  in  all  our  surveys  of  the  works  of 
God,  to  look  upward  to  him  as  the  Supreme  Agent,  to  trace 
his  attributes  in  all  his  operations,  and  to  offer  him  a  tribute 
of  grateful  adoration.  The  Scriptures,  therefore,  would  be 
fully  sufficient  to  answer  all  the  purposes  of  a  revelation  to 
man,  although  they  made  no  allusion  to  other  worlds,  or  to 
other  intelligences  within  the  range  of  the  Divine  government. 

Since  the  system  of  nature,  the  system  of  revelation,  and 
the  rational  faculties  of  man,  had  their  origin  from  the  same 
Almighty  Being,  we  should  naturally  expect  that  they  should 
perfectly  harmonize  in  their  grand  lineaments,  and  in  the 
truths  they  are  calculated  respectively  to  unfold ;  or,  at  least, 
that  there  should  be  no  glaring  contradiction  between  the 
intimations  given  by  the  one  and  by  the  other.  If  the  inves¬ 
tigations  of  reason  in  regard  to  the  material  universe  neces¬ 
sarily  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  numerous  worlds  exist 
throughout  immensity,  and  if  the  Scriptures  contain  a  com¬ 
munication  from  God,  we  should  never  expect  to  find  in  that 
revelation  any  proposition  asserting  that  there  is  only  one 
world  and  one  race  of  intelligent  beings  in  the  universe,  and 
it  is  needless  to  say  that  no  such  proposition  is  to  be  found 
in  the  Bible.  On  the  contrary,  though  the  Scriptures  never 
directly  or  explicitly  treat  of  this  subject,  the  doctrine  of  a 
plurality  of  worlds  is  embodied  in  many  passages  of  the  sa¬ 
cred  writings ;  and  the  language  of  the  inspired  penmen  is  in 
all  cases  perfectly  consistent  with  the  idea  of  myriads  of 
worlds  existing  throughout  the  universe.  To  illustrate  this 
position,  in  a  few  instances,  is  the  object  of  this  chapter; 
and  as  the  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  this  sentiment  is 
embodied  are  more  numerous  than  is  generally  apprehended, 
I  shall  select  only  a  few  of  them  as  the  subject  of  comment 
and  illustration. 

The  first  passage  on  which  I  shall  offer  a  few  remarks  is 
Psalm  viii.  3,  4,  u  When  I  consider  thy  heavens,  the  work  of 
thy  fingers,  the  moon  and  the  stars,  which  thou  hast  ordained ; 
what  is  man,  that  thou  art  mindful  of  him!  or  the  son  of 
man,  that  thou  visitest  him !” 

When  composing  this  hymn  of  praise  to  God,  the  Psalmist 
evidently  appears  to  have  been  contemplating,  with  intelli¬ 
gence  and  pious  emotion,  the  glories  of  the  nocturnal  sky — 
the  moon  walking  in  brightness  along  the  canopy  of  heaven, 
nd  the  stars  and  planets  diffusing  their  lustre  from  more  dis- 


SENTIMENTS  OF  THE  INSPIRED  WRITERS.  249 

tant  regions.  Viewing  those  resplendent  orbs,  his  thoughts 
seem  to  have  taken  a  flight  into  the  regions  of  immensity, 
and  by  the  guidance  of  his  rational  powers,  and  aided  by  the 
spirit  of  inspiration,  he  takes  an  expansive  view  of  the  mul¬ 
titude,  the  magnitude,  and  the  grandeur  of  those  magnificent 
orbs  which  roll  in  the  distant  tracks  of  creation.  Over¬ 
whelmed  with  his  views  of  the  immensity  of  the  universe, 
and  of  the  perfections  and  grandeur  of  its  Creator,  he  breaks 
out  into  this  striking  exclamation,  “  Lord  !  what  is  man ,  that 
thou  art  mindful  of  him !  or  the  son  of  man,  that  thou  visitest 
him!”  Surveying  with  his  intellectual  eye  the  boundless  ex¬ 
tent  of  God’s  universal  empire,  he  shrinks,  as  it  were,  into 
nothing,  and  seems  almost  afraid  lest  he  should  be  forgotten 
or  overlooked  amidst  the  immensity  of  beings  over  which  the 
Divine  government  extends.  Now,  there  could  be  no  em¬ 
phasis  or  propriety  in  this  exclamation,  if  the  inhabitants  of 
this  globe  were  the  only  rational  beings  that  peopled  the  ma¬ 
terial  universe ;  for,  if  man  is  the  principal  inhabitant  of  crea¬ 
tion,  it  could  be  no  matter  of  wonder  and  astonishment  that 
God  should  be  “mindful  of  him,”  and  exercise  towards  him 
a  special  regard  and  superintending  care.  Such  a  minute  at¬ 
tention  and  affectionate  regard  is  nothing  more  than  what  we 
should  have  naturally  expected.  But,  if  the  immensity  of 
space  be  diversified  with  ten  thousand  times  ten  thousand 
worlds,  replenished  with  rational  inhabitants,  as  science  and 
right  reason  demonstrate  ;  if  the  race  of  Adam  appear  no 
more  in  proportion  to  the  beings  that  people  the  amplitudes 
of  creation  than  as  a  drop  to  the  ocean,  then  the  Divine  con¬ 
descension  appears  truly  wonderful  and  astonishing, — that, 
from  the  heights  of  his  glory  in  the  heavens,  the  Most  High 
should  look  down  with  an  eye  of  complacency  on  the  puny 
inhabitants  of  earth,  and  regard  them  with  a  Father’s  atten¬ 
tion  and  care.  This  is  evidently  the  leading  idea  which  the 
pious  exclamation  of  the  Psalmist  is  intended  to  convey ;  and 
therefore,  if  this  globe  were  the  only  or  the  principal  abode 
of  rational  beings,  such  language  would  be  mere  hyperbole, 
or  something  approaching  to  bombast,  which  would  be  incon¬ 
sistent  with  the  veracity  and  solemnity  of  an  inspired  writer. 

It  appears,  then,  that  the  passage  under  consideration  is  not 
only  consistent  with  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds, 
but  necessarily  embodies  in  it  the  idea  of  the  Divine  empire 
being  indefinitely  extended,  and  comprising  within  its  range 
numerous  orders  of  exalted  intelligences.  It  likewise  teaches 
us,  that  while  the  Almighty  has  diversified  the  fields  of  im¬ 
mensity  with  innumerable  worlds ;  that  while  he  sits  en- 


250 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED 


throned  on  the  magnificence  of  his  works  in  the  distant 
regions  of  his  creation,  and  governs  the  affairs  of  unnumbered 
orders  of  intellectual  existence,  he  also  exercises  the  minutest 
superintendence  over  every  ivorld  he  has  created ,  however 
diminutive  in  comparison  of  the  whole.  His  eye  rests  on 
the  humblest  and  the  minutest  of  its  objects,  and  his  Spirit 
watches  over  it  as  vigilantly  as  if  it  formed  the  sole  object 
of  his  physical  and  moral  administration ;  so  that  neither 
man  nor  the  smallest  microscopic  animalculae  are  overlooked 
amidst  the  multifarious  objects  of  the  Divine  government. 
This  is  an  attribute  peculiar  to  the  Most  High ,  which  flows 
from  the  immensity  of  his  nature  and  the  boundless  know¬ 
ledge  lie  has  of  all  his  works,  and  which  gives  us  a  more 
glorious  and  sublime  idea  of  his  character  than  if  his  regards 
were  confined  to  one  department  of  his  empire,  or  to  one 
order  of  his  creatures  ;  and  in  nothing  is  the  Divine  Being 
so  immensely  separated  from  man,  or  from  any  other  rank  of 
intelligent  existence,  as  in  the  display  he  gives  of  this  won¬ 
derful  and  incommunicable  attribute.  By  overlooking  this 
peculiar  characteristic  of  the  Divinity,  and  attempting  to  com¬ 
pare  his  procedure  with  the  limited  conceptions  of  our  own 
minds,  we  are  apt  to  indulge  in  very  contracted  and  erroneous 
views  respecting  his  nature  and  universal  government,  as  well 
as  in  regard  to  the  revelations  of  his  word  and  the  dispensa¬ 
tions  of  his  providence. 

The  next  passage  I  shall  notice  is  Isaiah  xl.  15,  17:  “Be¬ 
hold,  the  nations  are  as  a  drop  of  a  bucket,  and  are  counted 
as  the  small  dust  of  the  balance.”  “  All  nations  before  Him 
are  as  nothing,  and  they  are  counted  to  him  less  than  nothing 
and  vanity.” 

In  the  chapter  from  which  these  words  are  taken,  the  pro¬ 
phet  announces  deliverance  from  the  captivity  of  Babylon, 
and  the  approach  of  that  period  when  “  the  glory  of  Jehovah 
shall  be  revealed,  and  when  all  flesh  shall  see  it  together.” — • 
In  order  to  obviate  every  difficulty  that  might  seem  to  stand 
in  the  way  of  the  accomplishment  of  such  a  glorious  event, 
the  prophet  describes,  in  the  most  sublime  language,  the  per¬ 
fections  and  character  of  him  by  whose  agency  this  astonish¬ 
ing  change  in  the  world  was  to  be  introduced.  He  is  declared 
to  be  that  Almighty  Being  “  who  measures  the  ocean  in  the 
hollow  of  his  hand,  who  meteth  out  the  heavens  with  the 
span,  who  comprehendeth  the  dust  of  the  earth  in  a  measure, 
and  weigheth  the  mountains  in  scales,  and  the  hills  in  a 
balance.”  The  prophet  likewise  denounces  the  folly  and 
wickedness  of  idolatry,  by  exhibiting  the  character  and  opera- 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


251 


tions  of  him  whom  no  material  images,  however  splendid, 
can  ever  represent  or  adumbrate.  “He  sitteth  on  the  circle 
of  the  sky  which  surrounds  the  earth,  and  the  inhabitants 
thereof  are  as  grasshoppers  ;  he  stretcheth  out  the  heavens 
as  a  curtain  ;  he  bringeth  forth  their  host  by  number ;  he 
calleth  them  all  by  their  names,  by  the  greatness  of  his  might ; 
for  that  he  is  strong  in  power,  and  there  is  no  searching  of 
his  understanding.”  Among  these  sublime  descriptions  are 
contained  the  passages  I  have  quoted, — “  Behold,  the  nations 
are  as  the  drop  of  a  bucket.”  “  All  nations  before  him  are 
as  nothing,”  &c.  Such  declarations  could  scarcely  be  made 
with  propriety,  if  all  the  rolling  orbs  of  heaven  were  destitute 
of  inhabitants;  for  then  it  would  not  be  true  that  “all  na¬ 
tions  are  as  the  small  dust  of  the  balance,”  and  that  they  are 
“  counted  to  Jehovah  as  less  than  nothing  and  vanity.”  They 
who  deny  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality  of  worlds  assume  the 
position,  “  that  man  holds  the  principal  station  in  the  material 
universe ;”  but  were  this  the  case,  then  the  nations  of  the 
earth,  and  “  their  multitude  and  glory,”  behoved  to  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  the  greater  portion,  or  as  one  of  the  greater  depart¬ 
ments  of  the  Divine  empire;  and  if  so,  it  would  be  approach¬ 
ing  to  extravagance  and  bombast  for  any  one  to  declare  that 
they  are  only  like  a  drop  compared  with  the  ocean,  like  a 
few  particles  of  dust  compared  with  a  mighty  island,  or,  in 
comparison  with  other  departments,  that  “they  are  as  nothing, 
and  less  than  nothing  and  vanity.” 

We  are  here  to  consider  the  comparisons  and  contrasts  drawn 
in  those  passages  as  referring,  not  to  Jehovah,  abstractedly 
considered,  but  to  the  manifestations  he  has  given  of  his 
power,  wisdom,  and  grandeur,  in  the  scenes  of  the  universe. 
Hence  we  are  directed  in  the  chapter  from  which  our  quota¬ 
tions  are  taken,  to  “lift  up  our  eyes  on  high,”  and  contemplate 
“  the  firmament  of  his  power ;”  to  “  behold  the  hosts”  of'  re¬ 
splendent  globes  which  he  has  dispersed  throughout  the  re¬ 
gions  of  space  “  by  the  greatness  of  his  strength,”  and  to  con¬ 
sider  that  the  vast  extent  of  the  celestial  spaces  have  been 
“  meted  out  with  the  span.”  When  the  inspired  writers  de¬ 
mand  from  their  hearers  a  sentiment  of  reverence  and  admira¬ 
tion,  they  do  not  present  to  them  metaphysical  reasonings  or 
abstract  views  in  reference  to  the  perfections  of  Jehovah,  but 
describe  those  exhibitions  of  his  power  and  grandeur  which 
are  calculated  to  strike  the  senses  and  imagination,  and  to  ex¬ 
cite  the  emotion  intended.  Thus,  when  the  prophet  Jeremiah 
wished  to  impress  his  hearers  with  a  reverential  sense  of  the 
greatness  of  God,  he  describes  him  by  the  effects  of  his  power 


2  52 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED 


and  wisdom  as  displayed  in  his  operations.  u  Who  would  not 
fear  thee,  O  King  of  nations  !  He  hath  made  the  earth  by  his 
power,  he  hath  established  the  world  by  his  wisdom,  and  hath 
stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  discretion.  When  he  utter- 
eth  his  voice,  there  is  a  noise  of  waters  in  the  heavens,  and  he 
causeth  the  vapours  to  ascend  from  the  ends  of  the  earth  ;  he 
maketh  lightnings  with  rain,  and  bringeth  the  wind  out  of  his 
treasures.” 

In  like  manner,  in  the  passages  under  consideration,  we  are 
to  consider  the  contrast  here  stated  as  drawn,  not  between 
all  nations  and  Jehovah  as  an  abstract  Being,  whose  perfec¬ 
tions  are  infinite;  for  in  this  respect  no  comparison  can  be 
made,  but  as  drawn  between  this  earth  with  all  its  inhabitants, 
and  the  innumerable  globes  which  are  scattered  throughout  the 
regions  of  immensity.  And  the  most  enlightened  astronomer, 
after  his  boldest  excursions  into  the  illimitable  tracks  of  crea¬ 
tion,  could  devise  no  language  to  express  his  emotions,  and 
the  contrast  that  subsists  between  this  globe  and  the  immensity 
of  the  heavens,  more  appropriate  and  energetic  than  the  pas¬ 
sage  before  us.  This  world,  with  “  all  that  it  inherits,”  is 
here  represented  as  a  single  drop  of  water  to  the  mighty 
ocean,  or  as  a  few  particles  of  dust  to  the  most  spacious  con¬ 
tinents,  when  compared  with  the  grandeur  and  immensity  of 
nature ;  yea,  to  complete  the  contrast,  it  is  u  counted  as 
nothing,  and  less  than  nothing  and  vanity.”  When  we  sur¬ 
vey  the  vast  globes  which  compose  the  planetary  system  ; 
when  we  wing  our  flight  in  imagination  to  the  starry  regions, 
and  leave  the  sun  and  all  his  attendants  behind  us,  till  they 
dwindle  to  an  undistinguishable  point ;  when  we  prosecute 
our  course  through  thousands  of  nebulae,  every  one  of  them 
containing  unnumbered  suns  and  systems ;  and  when  the 
mind  is  bewildered  and  overpowered  at  the  immensity  of  the 
prospect,  we  cannot  but  perceive  that  the  language  of  the 
prophet  is  the  most  impressive,  and  the  fittest  that  could 
have  been  selected ;  that  it  is  most  emphatic,  and  literally 
true.  But  if  this  earth  were  the  principal  part  of  God’s  uni¬ 
verse,  there  could  be  no  propriety  in  such  language,  and  it 
could  be  considered  as  allied  only  to  extravagance  and 
pompous  declamation — a  characteristic  which  ought  never  to 
be  applied  to  the  writers  of  the  sacred  records. 

We  ought  likewise  to  consider  that  the  contrast  is  not 
stated  between  the  earth  considered  merely  as  a  material  sys¬ 
tem,  and  the  amplitudes  of  the  firmament,  but  between  the  na¬ 
tions  of  the  earth  and  the  innumerable  order  of  beings  which 
people  the  universe,  plainly  implying,  in  my  apprehension, 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


253 


that  unnumbered  myriads  of  intelligences  occupy  the  celestial 
worlds,  in  comparison  of  which  all  who  now  dwell  upon  the 
earth,  or  who  have  occupied  its  surface  since  time  began,  are 
only  as  a  drop  to  the  ocean.  The  passage  before  us  may 
therefore  be  considered  as  almost  a  direct  intimation  of  a  plu¬ 
rality  of  worlds ;  and,  if  it  could  be  proved  that  no  other 
worlds  existed,  I  should  scarcely  consider  the  strong  language 
here  used  as  the  dictate  of  inspiration ;  but  when  we  consider 
wThat  appear  to  be  the  true  references  of  the  prophet’s  lan¬ 
guage,  and  the  magnificent  ideas  it  suggests,  it  conveys  the 
most  glorious  and  sublime  conceptions  of  the  grandeur  of 
“  the  high  and  lofty  One  who  inhabiteth  eternity,”  and  whose 
presence  fills  the  immensity  of  creation. 

The  next  passage  I  shall  adduce  in  support  of  the  position 
under  consideration,  is  Nehemiah,  ix.  6  :  “Thou,  even  thou, 
art  Lord  alone ;  thou  hast  made  heaven,  the  heaven  of  hea¬ 
vens,  with  all  their  host,  the  earth,  and  all  things  that  are 
therein,  the  seas,  and  all  that  is  therein,  and  thou  preservest 
them  all ;  and  the  host  of  heaven  worshipped!  thee.” 

Here  the  Most  High  is  represented,  not  by  a  metaphysical 
exhibition  of  his  infinity,  eternity,  and  omnipotence,  abstract¬ 
edly  considered,  but  by  the  manifestations  he  has  made  of 
himself  in  his  wonderful  operations,  both  in  heaven  and  on 
earth ;  and  this  is  the  general,  I  may  say  universal,  mode  in 
which  the  sacred  writers  exhibit  the  character  and  perfections 
of  the  Deity.  “Thou  hast  made  heaven,  the  heaven  of  hea¬ 
vens,  with  all  their  hosts.”  By  “  heaven”  is  here  to  be  un¬ 
derstood  the  visible  firmament,  with  all  the  stars  and  planets 
perceptible  by  the  human  eye,  which  is  the  sense  in  which  the 
term  heaven  is  generally  taken  when  God  is  represented  as  its 
Creator.  The  “  heaven  of  heavens”  is  an  expression  which  is 
worthy  of  particular  attention,  and  evidently  includes  in  it  an 
idea  far  more  extensive  and  sublime  than  what  most  readers 
generally  attach  to  it.  It  evidently  intimates  that,  far  beyond  the 
visible  starry  heavens  which  we  behold,  there  are  unnumbered 
firmaments,  composed  of  other  stars  and  systems  stretching  out 
towards  infinity  on  either  hand,  and  which  mortals  in  their  pre¬ 
sent  state  will  never  be  able  to  descry.  We  have  already  attain¬ 
ed  some  glimpses  of  such  firmaments.  More  than  a  hundred 
millions  of  stars,  in  addition  to  those  distinguishable  by  the 
naked  eye,  are  within  the  reach  of  the  telescope,  if  all  the  re¬ 
gions  of  the  sky  were  by  this  instrument  thoroughly  explored. 
We  behold  several  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of  nebulae 
in  different  spaces  of  the  heavens,  each  of  them  consisting  of 
thousands  of  stars,  which  would  form  a  firmament  as  glorious 
Vol.  VIII.  22 


254 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED 


and  expansive  as  that  which  appears  to  a  common  observer  in 
the  midnight  sky ;  so  that  were  we  removed  from  one  of  those 
nebulae  to  another,  we  should  behold  at  every  stage  a  new 
firmament,,  composed  of  stars  or  other  luminaries  altogether 
different  from  what  we  had  seen  before,  or  from  what  we  per¬ 
ceive  in  the  firmament  which  is  visible  from  our  globe.  These 
facts,  which  have  be^n  brought  to  light  by  the  discoveries  of 
modern  astronomy,  while  they  display  the  infinite  power  and 
grandeur  of  the  Divinity,  serve  likewise  to  illustrate  many  of 
the  declarations  of  his  word,  and  particularly  such  expressions 
as  that  before  us, — “  the  heaven  of  heavens,”  the  boundless 
empire  of  the  “King  eternal  and  invisible,”  in  which  he  reigns 
over  unnumbered  intelligences.  The  same  emphatical  ex¬ 
pression  is  used  in  the  prayer  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of 
the  temple :  “  But  will  God  in  very  deed  dwell  on  earth  ? 
Behold,  the  heaven  and  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain 
thee !”  implying  that  far  beyond  the  range  of  the  material 
universe,  vast  and  extensive  as  it  is,  the  great  Jehovah  resides 
in  the  glory  of  his  invisible  attributes,  filling  immensity  with 
his  presence. 

By  “  the  host  of  heaven ”  is  doubtless  to  be  understood  the 
inhabitants  of  those  numerous  worlds  and  vast  regions  here 
designated  by  the  most  emphatic  expression  which  could  be 
selected, “  the  heaven  of  heavens  ;”  intimating  that  the  same 
Almighty  Being  who  launched  into  existence  those  innume¬ 
rable  globes  also  replenished  them  with  countless  orders  of 
intelligent  existence,  capable  of  enjoying  his  bounty,  and  offer¬ 
ing  to  him  a  tribute  of  adoration.  Hence  it  is  here  declared, 
“  the  host  of  heaven  worshippeth  thee ;”  evidently  implying, 
if  there  is  any  rational  idea  to  be  elicited  from  the  passage, 
that  the  bodies  which  compose  “  the  heaven  of  heavens”  are 
occupied  with  inhabitants ;  that  these  inhabitants  are  endowed 
with  capacious  powers  of  intellect;  that  their  numbers  cor¬ 
respond  with  the  amplitude  of  the  regions  which  they  occupy; 
that  most,  if  not  all  of  them,  are  invested  with  the  attribute  of 
moral  perfection,  and  are  consequently  in  a  state  of  happiness ; 
that  they  employ  their  faculties  in  contemplating  the  perfec¬ 
tions  and  operations  of  their  Creator ;  and  that  they  magnify 
and  adore  him  in  the  loftiest  strains,  as  the  centre  and  source 
of  all  their  felicity :  all  which  appears  to  be  implied  in  the 
passage,  “the  host  of  heaven  worshippeth  thee.”  For  no 
being  can  with  propriety  be  said  to  worship  Jehovah,  unless 
such  as  are  endowed  with  moral  and  intellectual  powers,  capa¬ 
ble  of  appreciating  his  perfections,  as  displayed  in  the  universe 
and  of  perceiving  that  he  is  worthy  of  all  homage  and  adora- 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


255 


tion.  In  accordance  with  such  views  the  Psalmist,  when  his 
soul  was  inspired  with  the  higher  strains  of  devotion,  in  a 
sublime  apostrophe,  calls  upon  the  whole  intelligent  uni¬ 
verse  to  adore  the  name  of  Jehovah  : — u  Praise  ye  Jehovah 
from  the  heavens ;  praise  him  ye  heaven  of  heavens,” — or,  ye 
inhabitants  of  those  higher  regions, — u  praise  him,  all  ye  his 
angels ;  praise  him,  all  ye  his  hosts.  Let  them  praise  the 
name  of  the  Lord,  for  his  name  alone  is  exalted,  and  his  glory 
is  above  the  earth  and  heaven.”  If  therefore  there  were  no 
other  worlds  than  that  on  which  we  dwell,  such  magnificent 
expressions  would  lose  all  their  sublimity,  would  be  almost 
without  meaning,  and  might  be  regarded  rather  as  the  turgid 
exclamations  of  an  enthusiast  than  as  the  sober  dictates  of 
inspiration.  But  when  we  take  into  view  the  immensity  of 
the  universe,  and  the  numerous  worlds  and  beings  it  contains, 
such  expressions,  though  among  the  strongest  which  human 
language  can  furnish,  fall  far  short  of  communicating  the  lofty 
ideas  they  are  intended  to  represent. 

Such  passages  as  the  following  may  likewise  be  considered 
as  embodying  views  of  the  same  description: — Psalm  ciii.  19, 
— 44  The  Lord  hath  prepared  his  throne  in  the  heavens  ;  and 
his  kingdom  ruleth  over  all.” 

This,  along  with  a  number  of  similar  passages  interspersed 
throughout  the  Scriptures,  evidently  implies  that  the  heavens 
form  the  principal,  part  of  the  Divine  empire,  compared  with 
which,  this  earth  is  but  as  a  point,  and  44  all  its  inhabitants  re¬ 
puted  as  nothing.”  They  are  represented  as  the  chief  and 
appropriate  residence  of  Jehovah,  where  he  displays  the  glory 
of  his  perfections  to  unnumbered  intelligences.  Hence  he  is 
declared  to  have  44  established  his  throne  in  the  heavens,”  in¬ 
timating,  that  it  is  in  those  higher  and  more  expansive  regions 
that  the  principal  arrangements  of  his  government  have  been 
made,  that  the  beneficence  and  rectitude  of  his  character  are 
manifested,  and  that  the  grandeur  of  his  moral  administration 
is  most  extensively  displayed.  But  it  is  evident,  that  where 
there  are  no  intellectual  beings,  there  can  be  no  moral  govern¬ 
ment  ;  and  therefore,  if  the  Almighty  has  a  government  in  the 
heavens,  these  heavens  must  be  peopled  with  beings  endowed 
with  moral  and  intellectual  faculties,  capable  of  being  the  sub¬ 
jects  of  a  moral  administration.  To  suppose  a  government 
without  subjects,  is  evidently  preposterous  and  absurd.  It  is 
added,  44  His  kingdom  ruleth  over  all.”  Wherever  these  ex 
pansive  heavens  extend,  and  however  numerous  and  august 
the  worlds  and  systems  which  lie  within  their  range,  they  are 
all  under  the  superintendence  and  sway  of  the  Divine  govern- 


256 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED 


ment,  which  extends  its  care  and  moral  energies  oyer  the  re¬ 
motest  regions  of  the  universe.  But  as  there  can  be  no  king¬ 
dom  without  rational  and  moral  subjects,  therefore,  wherever 
the  kingdom  of  Jehovah  extends  throughout  the  illimitable 
spaces  of  immensity,  there  must  be  myriads  of  beings  endowed 
with  rational  and  moral  natures.  Similar  remarks  might  be 
made  upon  such  declarations  as  the  following : — “  The  Lord, 
he  is  God  in  the  heaven  above,”  intimating  his  rule  or  do¬ 
minion  over  the  worlds  on  high ;  “  Behold  the  heaven  and  the 
heaven  of  heavens  is  the  Lord  thy  God’s,”  intimating,  like¬ 
wise,  that  he  presides  in  high  authority  over  all  the  beings 
they  contain ;  “  Thine,  O  Lord,  is  the  greatness,  and  the  glory, 
and  the  majesty;  for  all  in  heaven  and  in  earth  is  thine. 
Thine  is  the  kingdom,  O  Lord,  and  thou  art  exalted  above 
all ;”  “  Heaven  is  my  throne  and  the  earth  is  my  footstool ;” 
“His  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom  ;”  “His  dominion  is 
an  everlasting  dominion ;”  and  “  He  doth  according  to  his 
will  in  the  army  of  heaven ,  and  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
earth.”  All  these,  and  similar  passages,  imply  rule  and  do¬ 
minion  over  the  inhabitants  of  the  heavens;  and  consequently 
intimate  that  the  celestial  worlds  are  occupied  by  the  subjects 
of  the  divine  government.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  ex¬ 
pression  which  so  frequently  occurs  in  scripture,  “  the  Lord 
of  hosts”  or  the  Lord  of  armies,  has  a  particular  reference  to 
the  universal  dominion  of  Jehovah  over  the  countless  myriads 
which  people  the  distant  regions  of  creation. 

Psalm  cxlv.  9  :  “  The  Lord  is  good  to  all ;  and  his  tender 
mercies  are  over  all  his  works.” 

The  goodness  of  God,  in  innumerable  modes  and  instances, 
is  displayed,  not  only  towards  man,  but  to  all  the  diversified 
orders  of  animated  existence  in  this  lower  world.  But  it  is 
not  confined  to  this  terrestrial  sphere,  but  is  diffused  wherever 
his  wisdom  and  omnipotence  have  prepared  habitations  for 
sensitive  and  intellectual  beings.  Hence  it  is  here  declared, 
that  “  his  tender  mercies,”  or  the  emanations  of  his  goodness 
and  beneficence,  “are  diffused  over  all  his  ivorks ;”  implying 
that  throughout  the  whole  range  of  the  material  system,  how¬ 
ever  far  it  may  extend,  the  beneficence  of  the  Deity  is  displayed 
to  numerous  ranks  of  his  sensitive  and  intelligent  offspring  ; 
for  unless  such  beings  exist  throughout  all  places  of  his 
vast  dominions,  there  could  be  no  scope  for  the  exercise  of 
his  benevolence,  and  of  course  it  could  not  be  said,  with  pro¬ 
priety,  to  extend  “over  all  his  works.”  In  the  same  point  of 
view  we  may  consider  an  analogous  expression  in  Psalm  cviii. 
and  other  places  of  Scripture, — •“  Thy  mercy  is  great  above 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


257 


the  heavens  ;”  or,  as  Mr.  Locke  translates  it,  “  Great  is  thy 
county  above  the  heavens ;”  an  expression  which  leads  us  to 
conclude,  that  far  beyond  these  visible  heavens  which  the 
unassisted  eye  beholds,  and  even  beyond  the  reach  of  all  the 
orbs  which  the  telescope  has  enabled  us  to  descry,  the  Divine 
goodness  shines  in  rich  manifestations,  diffusing  felicity  and 
ecstatic  joy  among  unnumbered  legions  of  happy  existence; 
for  “  bounty,”  or  “  goodness,”  can  have  a  relation  only  to 
such  beings. 

In  the  following  passage  of  Psalm  cxlv.  10 — 13,  it  is  de¬ 
clared,  “All  thy  works  shall  praise  thee,  O  Lord,  and  thy 
saints  shall  bless  thee.  They  shall  speak  of  the  glory  of  thy 
kingdom,  and  talk  of  thy  power  ;  to  make  known  to  the  sons 
of  men  his  mighty  acts,  and  the  glorious  majesty  of  his  king¬ 
dom.  Thy  kingdom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom,”  &c. 

This  passage  may  be  considered  as  embodying  a  prediction 
that  in  the  future  ages  of  the  church  men  of  piety  will  acquire 
more  elevated  and  comprehensive  views  of  the  extent  and  the 
grandeur  of  the  universal  kingdom  of  Jehovah,  and  will  display 
a  more  enlightened  zeal  than  in  ages  past,  in  exhibiting  to 
their  fellow-men  the  august  operations  of  Omnipotence,  and 
the  magnificence  of  that  empire  over  which  the  Most  High 
presides.  “  They  shall  speak  of  the  glory  of  Jehovah’s  king¬ 
dom,  and  talk  of  his  power”  If  this  kingdom  were  chiefly 
confined  to  the  evanescent  speck  of  earth  on  which  we  live,  it 
would  scarcely  be  worthy  of  the  epithets  which  are  here  be¬ 
stowed  upon  it.  It  is  a  kingdom  of  glory  ;  it  is  a  kingdom  in 
which  are  displayed  mighty  acts  or  operations;  it  is  a  kingdom 
of  glorious  majesty  ;  it  is  a  kingdom  in  which  are  displayed 
“ power ,”  and  “  greatness  which  is  unsearchable  ;”  it  is  a 
“  kingdom  of  all  ages,”  and  its  administration  will  be  carried 
forward  throughout  all  the  revolutions  of  eternity — “  thy  king¬ 
dom  is  an  everlasting  kingdom.”  Were  its  government  con¬ 
ducted  chiefly  in  reference  to  earth  and  its  inhabitants,  such 
descriptions  of  its  grandeur  could  scarcely  be  expected  from 
inspired  writers,  nor  would  such  a  limited  kingdom  corres¬ 
pond  to  the  majesty  of  an  infinite,  omnipotent,  and  eternal 
Being,  who  has  the  range  of  immensity  as  the  theatre  of  his 
operations.  But  when  we  contemplate  the  universal  kingdom 
of  Jehovah  extending  throughout  the  unlimited  regions  of 
space  ;  when  we  behold  it  filled  with  worlds  of  immense  mag¬ 
nitude,  and  with  systems  of  worlds  in  such  a  multitude  and 
variety  that  no  man  can  number  them,  we  perceive  at  once 
that  such  a  kingdom  warrants  the  application  of  such  lofty 
epithets  and  expressions  as  are  here  used ;  that  it  is  indeed  a 

22* 


258 


plurality  of  worlds  proved 


kingdom  displaying  omnipotent  “  power,”  and  “greatness  un¬ 
searchable  ;”  that  it  is  connected  with  “  mighty  operations ;” 
that  it  is  invested  with  “  glorious  majesty ;”  and  that  it  is 
worthy  of  everlasting  duration.  But  as  the  idea  of  a  kingdom 
necessarily  includes  subjects ,  and  as  the  multitude  of  subjects 
constitute  the  chief  glory  of  an  empire,  so  we  must  necessarily 
admit  that  all  the  provinces  of  this  celestial  kingdom  are  re¬ 
plenished  with  inhabitants,  or,  in  other  words,  subjects  of  the 
Divine  government;  without  which  it  could  have  no  “glory” 
nor  “majesty,”  nor  could  it  with  propriety  be  entitled  to  the 
designation  of  “  a  kingdom.” 

Such  passages  as  the  following  may  likewise  be  considered 
as  corroborating  the  preceding  positions:  Psalm  cxiii.  4 — 6, 
“  Who  is  like  unto  the  Lord  our  God,  who  dwelleth  on  high  ? 
The  Lord  is  high  above  all  nations,  and  his  glory  above  the 
heavens.  He  humbleth  himself  to  behold  the  things  that  are 
in  heaven  and  in  the  earth.”  “  Thy  goodness  is  great  above 
the  heavens,  and  thy  truth  reacheth  to  the  skies.  Thou  art 
exalted,  O  God,  above  the  heavens ,”  &c. 

These  passages,  and  others  of  a  similar  import,  embody  the 
general  idea  that  the  omnipotence  and  grandeur  of  the  Divi¬ 
nity  are  displayed  in  regions  far  beyond  that  firmament  which 
is  visible  from  our  globe  by  common  observers ;  yea,  beyond 
the  utmost  limits  to  which  telescopic  discoveries  have  con¬ 
ducted  us;  for  “his  glory  is  above”  or  beyond,  “these  hea¬ 
vens.”  And  if  nothing  but  empty  space  existed  beyond  these 
limits,  or  mere  matter  without  mind,  it  could  scarcely  be  said 
that  the  Divine  glory  is  displayed  beyond  these  heavens.  It 
is  further  stated  that  the  glory  of  the  Almighty  is  so  expan¬ 
sive,  and  that  his  universal  kingdom  extends  through  regions 
so  immeasurably  distant,  that  he  may  be  said,  speaking  after 
the  manner  of  men,  “  to  humble  himself  when  he  beholds  the 
objects  in  the  heavens ”  which  lie  within  our  observation. 
This  declaration  contains  not  only  a  sublime  representation 
of  the  magnificence  of  the  Divine  nature  and  operations,  but 
appears  to  me  to  embody  in  it  a  demonstration  of  what  we 
formerly  asserted  as  highly  probable — namely,  that  that  por¬ 
tion  of  the  universe  which  lies  within  the  range  of  telescopic 
vision,  and  which  contains  so  many  millions  of  splendid  suns 
and  systems,  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  universal  kingdom  of 
Jehovah,  compared  with  what  lies  beyond  the  utmost  bounda¬ 
ries  of  human  vision ;  for  he  is  here  represented  as  humbling 
himself  when  he  looks  down  from  the  remoter  glories  of  his 
empire  on  all  that  is  visible  to  the  view  of  mortals.  To  the 
same  purpose  is  the  pious  exclamation  of  the  Psalmist  in  the 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


259 


8th  Psalm :  “  O  Lord,  our  Lord,  how  excellent  is  thy  name 
in  all  the  earth!  who  hast  set  thy  glory  above  the  heavens  /” 
And  if  the  glory  of  the  Divinity,  be  manifested  in  regions  far 
beyond  the  visible  firmament,  we  may  rest  assured  that  it 
consists  in  displaying  his  perfections,  and  communicating  hap¬ 
piness  to  innumerable  orders  of  rational  beings,  who  are  the 
subjects  of  his  moral  government. 

I  shall  only  further  offer  a  few  cursory  remarks  on  the  fol¬ 
lowing  passages  : — Psalm  xix.  1,  “  The  heavens  declare  the 
glory  of  God,”  & c.  The  word  glory  in  this  and  similar 
passages,  when  applied  to  the  Divinity,  denotes  the  display 
of  his  wisdom,  goodness,  omnipotence,  and  other  attributes. 
The  heavens,  with  all  the  host  of  rolling  orbs  which  they 
contain,  are  here  declared  to  manifest  the  “  glory,”  or  the  in¬ 
finite  perfections,  of  Him  who  formed  them.  The  number 
and  magnitude  of  the  opaque  and  luminous  globes  contained 
within  the  vast  expansion  of  these  heavens,  and  their  astonish¬ 
ingly  rapid  motions,  evidently  proclaim  his  omnipotence  ;  but 
if  those  bodies  accomplished  no  end  corresponding  to  the  ex¬ 
tent  and  grandeur  of  the  means  employed ;  if  they  were  all 
so  many  expansive  deserts,  without  any  relation  to  intellectual 
existence,  they  could  afford  no  evidences  of  wisdom  and  be¬ 
neficence,  and  consequently  could  not  be  said,  with  any  show 
of  reason,  to  “  declare  the  glory  of  God.”  In  the  visions  re¬ 
corded  in  the  Book  of  Revelation,  the  celestial  inhabitants  are 
represented  as  falling  down  before  the  throne  of  the  Eternal 
in  acts  of  adoration,  and  proclaiming,  “  Thou  art  worthy,  O 
Lord,  to  receive  glory,  and  honour,  and  power ;  for  thou  hast 
*  created  all  things.”  And  in  another  scene  they  are  intro¬ 
duced  as  celebrating  with  rapture  the  Divine  operations : 
“  Great  and  marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty.” 
“  Blessing,  and  glory,  and  wisdom,  and  thanksgiving,  and 
honour,  and  power,  be  unto  our  God  for  ever  and  ever.” 
Similar  remarks  to  the  above  might  be  made  in  reference  to 
these  ascriptions  of  praise  and  adoration.  If  creation  were 
a  kind  of  chaos,  or  wilderness  void  of  inhabitants,  and  if  wis¬ 
dom,  design,  and  goodness  were  not  displayed  in  the  Divine 
arrangements,  there  would  be  little  to  excite  the  admiration 
and  devotional  rapture  of  superior  intelligences ;  and  they 
could  not  be  said  with  propriety  to  ascribe  wisdom ,  and  glory, 
and  thanksgiving  to  God,  while  they  behold  no  display  of 
some  of  these  attributes  in  the  mightiest  of  his  works.  But 
we  are  told  in  various  passages  of  Scripture  that  the  Most 
High  “established  the  world,”  or  the  universe,  “by  his  wis¬ 
dom,  and  stretched  out  the  heavens  by  his  understanding.” 


260 


PLURALITY  OF  WORLDS  PROVED 


In  Psalm  cxlvii.  4,  it  is  declared — “  He  telleth  the  number  of 
the  stars ;  he  calleth  them  all  by  their  names.”  It  is  evident 
we  are  not  to  consider  this  declaration  as  expressive  merely 
of  an  arithmetical  idea,  or  something  similar  to  the  practice  of 
an  astronomer,  who  distinguishes  the  stars  by  certain  letters, 
characters  or  appellations  ;  but  as  expressive  of  the  intimate 
knowledge  which  the  Almighty  has  of  all  those  mighty  orbs 
wherever  dispersed  throughout  the  regions  of  infinitude,  and 
likewise  his  perfect  acquaintance  with  nil  the  intellectual 
beings,  and  the  special  arrangements  connected  with  every  one 
of  them — a  circumstance  which  conveys  a  most  sublime  idea 
of  the  omniscience  and  omnipresence  of  the  Deity.  Hence, 
in  the  words  immediately  following,  the  mind  of  the  Psalmist, 
overpowered  with  this  idea,  bursts  forth  in  this  exclamation, 
“Great  is  our  Jehovah,  and  of  great  power;  his  understand¬ 
ing  is  infinite.” 

In  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  chapter  i.  2,  and  xi.  3,  a  plu¬ 
rality  of  worlds  is  declared  :  “Through  faith  we  understand  that 
the  worlds  were  framed  by  the  word  of  God,  and  that  the  things 
which  are  seen  were  not  made  of  things  that  do  appear.”  The 
Greek  word,ouAv,  in  this  passage,  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
an  age  or  dispensation ,  but  is  also  frequently  used  to  designate 
the  material  world ;  in  which  sense  it  must  be  taken  in  the 
passage  before  us,  as  is  evident  from  its  connexion,  and  from 
the  subject  on  which  the  apostle  is  treating.  It  is  to  the  visi¬ 
ble  or  material  world  that  our  attention  is  here  directed  as 
having  been  produced  from  an  invisible  cause.  The  term 
ai<Zva{  being  used  in  the  plural  number,  evidently  intimates 
that  there  are  more  worlds  than  one,  and  that  there  may  be  • 
thousands  or  millions ;  but,  independently  of  this  direct  inti¬ 
mation  of  a  plurality  of  worlds,  the  passages  formerly  quoted, 
when  viewed  in  a  proper  light,  and  considered  in  all  their 
references  and  bearings,  may  be  considered  as  conclusive 
proofs  of  the  same  position,  and  as  intimating  to  us,  not 
simply  a  plurality  of  worlds,  but  extending  our  views  of  their 
number  and  magnificence  as  far  as  science  has  yet  conducted 
us,  and  even  beyond  the  range  of  astronomical  discovery ;  for 
we  are  told  that  the  Divine  perfections  are  displayed  “  above,” 
or  beyond,  the  utmost  range  of  “  the  visible  heavens.” 

Many  other  passages  besides  the  above  might  have  been 
pointed  out  as  bearing  on  the  same  subject,  but  the  remarks 
already  made  on  the  passages  which  have  been  selected  may 
serve  as  a  key  to  illustrate  many  others,  as  they  happen  to 
occur  to  the  intelligent  student  of  the  Scriptures.  We  read, 
for  example,  of  the  Almighty  operating,  by  his  moral  govern- 


FROM  DIVINE  REVELATION. 


261 


ment  and  arrangements,”  “among  the  army,”  or  armies,  “of 
heaven,”  as  well  as  “  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth ;” 
and  that  the  whole  population  of  our  world  “  is  reputed  as 
nothing  in  his  sight.”  We  find  in  different  portions  of  the 
Psalms,  the  inhabitants  of  the  heavens  and  “  the  heaven  of 
heavens” — the  “  angels  who  excel  in  strength” — “  all  his 
hosts,”  or  legions,  of  intelligences,  “  in  all  places  of  his  domi¬ 
nions,  who  do  his  pleasure,  hearkening  to  the  voice  of  his 
word,” — we  find  all  these  ranks  of  beings  called  upon  to  join 
in  one  united  chorus  of  praise  and  thanksgiving  to  “  Him 
whose  name  alone  is  exalted,  and  whose  glory  is  above  the 
earth  and  heaven.”  We  read  in  the  Book  of  Job,  among 
many  other  descriptions  of  the  grandeur  of  Deity,  that  “  by 
his  Spirit  he  garnished  the  heavens ;”  and  that  the  astonish¬ 
ing  displays  of  his  omnipotence  they  contain  “  are  but  parts 
of  his  ways,”  and  that  “  the  thunder  of  his  power  none  can 
understand.”  All  of  which  representations,  and  many  others, 
may  be  considered  as  embodying  the  idea,  not  only  of  a  plu¬ 
rality,  but  of  myriads  of  worlds  existing  in  the  universe. 

There  is  one  general  remark  which  may  be  applied  to  all 
that  we  have  stated  in  this  chapter,  and  that  is — It  is  not  ne¬ 
cessary  to  suppose  that  the  inspired  writers  had  revealed  to 
them  all  the  wonders  of  modern  astronomy.  They  appear,  in 
some  instances,  to  have  been  ignorant  of  the  precise  meaning 
and  the  extensive  references  of  the  language  they  used.  The 
prophets  are  said  to  have  “  inquired  and  searched  diligently 
what  manner  of  time  the  spirit  of  Christ  which  was  in  them 
did  signify,  when  it  testified  beforehand  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
and  the  glory  that  should  follow ;”  intimating  that  they  were 
partly  unacquainted  with  the  precise  references  of  the  predic¬ 
tions  they  uttered.  They  were  only  the  amanuenses  of  the 
Divine  Spirit,  and  were  directed  to  such  language  as  was  ac¬ 
cordant  with  the  Divine  economy  and  with  the  facts  exist¬ 
ing  in  the  universe,  although  they  themselves  might  not  be 
aware  of  the  grandeur  of  those  objects  to  which  their  expres¬ 
sions  referred  ;  and  the  correspondence  of  their  language  with 
the  phenomena  of  the  heavens  and  the  earth,  and  the  disco¬ 
veries  of  modern  times,  constitutes  one  evidence  among  others 
of  the  truth  of  Divine  revelation 


262 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON  THE  PHYSICAL  AND  MORAL  STATE  OF  THE  BEINGS  THAT 
MAY  INHABIT  OTHER  WORLDS. 

On  the  enunciation  of  this  topic,  some  readers  will,  pro¬ 
bably,  be  apt  to  surmise,  that  the  author  is  attempting  to  go 
beyond  the  range  of  subjects  within  which  the  human  under¬ 
standing  should  be  confined.  We  have  never  seen  the  inha¬ 
bitants  of  other  worlds  ;  we  have  been  favoured  with  no 
special  revelations  respecting  them  ;  we  have  not  even  caught 
a  glimpse  of  the  peculiar  scenery  of  the  globes  in  which  they 
reside,  excepting  a  few  portions  of  their  celestial  phenomena; 
and  while  we  are  chained  down  by  the  law  of  gravitation  to 
this  sublunary  sphere,  we  cannot  fly  on  the  wings  of  a  seraph 
to  visit  any  of  the  distant  orbs  of  the  firmament.  It  is  true, 
that  on  such  a  subject  we  cannot  attempt  to  descend  into  par¬ 
ticulars.  But  there  are  certain  general  and  admitted  principles 
on  which  we  may  reason,  and  there  are  certain  phenomena 
and  indications  of  design  exhibited  in  the  structure  of  the 
universe  from  which  certain  general  conclusions  may  be  de¬ 
duced  ;  beyond  such  generalities  I  do  not  intend  to  proceed, 
nor  to  indulge  in  vague  conjecture.  There  are  many  things 
of  which  we  have  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  knowledge, 
and  yet  have  never  seen.  We  do  not  see  the  air  we  breathe, 
nor  most  of  the  gaseous  fluids ;  we  do  not  see  the  principle 
of  life,  or  the  rational  spirit  which  animates  our  bodies ;  we 
cannot  possibly  see  the  Divine  Being,  although  his  presence 
pervades  all  space.  But,  in  regard  to  all  these  objects,  we 
have  acquired  a  certain  degree  of  information  ;  and  therefore, 
although  we  have  never  seen  any  of  the  inhabitants  of  other 
planets,  and  never  will  so  long  as  we  remain  in  our  present 
abode,  yet  we  may  form  some  general  conceptions  respecting 
them,  both  as  to  their  physical  and  moral  state.  All  that  I 
propose  on  this  point  may  be  comprehended  under  the  fol¬ 
lowing  general  remarks  : — • 

1.  The  planets,  wherever  they  exist,  in  our  own  or  in 
other  systems,  are  inhabited  by  sentient  beings .  The  forma¬ 
tion  of  material  fabrics,  such  as  all  the  planetary  bodies  are, 
necessarily  indicate  that  beings  connected  with  material 
vehicles  and  organs  of  sensation  were  intended  to  inhabit 
them.  The  arrangements  for  the  diffusion  of  light,  heat,  and 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS.  263 

the  influence  of  the  power  of  attraction,  and  other  material 
agencies,  evidently  shew  that  such  agents  were  intended  to 
act  on  beings  formed  with  organical  parts  and  functions, 
capable  of  being  the  recipients  of  impressions  from  them. 
All  such  beings,  therefore,  must  be  considered  as  furnished 
with  bodies  constructed  with  organical  parts  analogous  to 
what  we  find  in  man  or  other  animated  beings  on  our  globe  ; 
but  the  size  and  form  of  such  bodies,  the  parts  of  which  they 
are  composed,  the  functions  they  respectively  perform,  their 
symmetry  and  decoration,  and  their  powers  of  locomotion, 
may  be  very  different  from  those  which  obtain  in  our  sub¬ 
lunary  world ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely,  from  a  consideration  of  the 
variety  which  exists  in  the  universe,  that  there  is  a  certain 
difference,  in  these  and  other  respects,  in  every  planet  and 
world  that  exists  throughout  immensity. 

2.  The  principal  inhabitants  of  the  planets  and  other  worlds 
are  not  merely  sensitive  beings,  but  are  likewise  endowed 
with  intellectual  faculties.  This  may  be  inferred  from 
the  scenery  connected  with  their  habitations.  Connected 
with  the  planet  Jupiter,  we  behold  four  splendid  moons, 
larger  than  ours,  performing  their  revolutions  around  it  in 
regular  periods  of  time ,  without  the  least  deviation  from  their 
courses.  The  general  aspect  of  these  moons,  their  diversified 
phases  and  rapid  changes,  along  with  their  frequent  eclipses, 
must  produce  a  sublime  and  variegated  appearance  in  the 
nocturnal  sky  of  that  planet ;  while,  from  the  surface  of  the 
moons  themselves,  the  still  more  splendid  appearance  of 
Jupiter  and  the  phases  of  the  other  moons  will  present  a  noc¬ 
turnal  scene  of  peculiar  sublimity  and  magnificence.  Con¬ 
nected  with  the  planet  Saturn,  we  find  scenes  still  more  august 
and  diversified ;  besides  seven  large  moons,  two  resplendent 
rings  of  vast  extent  surround  the  body  of  this  planet,  pro¬ 
ducing  the  most  sublime  and  diversified  phenomena,  both  to 
the  planet  itself  and  to  all  its  satellites,  adorning  the  firma¬ 
ments  of  those  bodies  with  a  splendour  and  magnificence  of 
which  we  can  form  but  a  faint  conception.*  Were  we  per¬ 
mitted  minutely  to  inspect  the  surfaces  of  these  planets,  we 
should  doubtless  find  many  beautiful  arrangements  in  the 
scenery  of  nature  with  which  they  are  adorned,  probably  far 
surpassing  in  picturesque  variety  and  grandeur  what  appears 
on  the  surface  of  our  globe.  When  we  inspect  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  moon  through  a  good  telescope,  we  behold 
a  beautiful  diversity  of  extensive  plains,  of  lofty  mountains, 

*  For  a  particular  description  of  the  scenes  here  alluded  to,  the  reade* 
is  referred  to  “  Celestial  Scenery,”  chap.  viii. 


26  4 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


in  every  variety  of  size  and  form — of  plains  and  valleys 
surrounded  with  circular  ramparts  of  hills — of  mountains 
towering  far  above,  and  vales  and  caverns  sinking  far  below 
the  general  level  of  the  lunar  surface,  with  many  other  varie¬ 
ties  ;  and  we  have  only  to  suppose  the  general  surface  of  that 
orb  adorned  with  vegetable  productions  somewhat  analogous 
to  those  of  our  globe,  in  order  to  present  a  scene  of  pic¬ 
turesque  beauty  and  magnificence. 

Now,  it  appears  a  natural,  if  not  a  necessary  conclusion, 
that  such  grand  and  beautiful  scenes  could  only  be  intended 
for  the  contemplation  and  enjoyment  of  beings  endowed  with 
rational  natures,  since  mere  sentient  beings,  such  as  the  lower 
animals  in  our  world,  are  insensible  either  to  the  beauties  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  or  the  glories  of  the  spangled  firma¬ 
ment.  If  our  globe  had  been  created  merely  for  the  support 
of  such  beings,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  would  have  been 
adorned  with  all  the  beautiful  arrangements  which  now  exist, 
and  the  splendid  and  diversified  scenes  with  which  it  is  fur¬ 
nished.  The  lion,  the  tiger,  and  the  hyena  find  every  accom¬ 
modation  they  desire  in  dens,  deserts,  thickets,  and  forests ; 
and  they  appear  to  feel  no  peculiar  enjoyment  in  flowery 
fields,  expansive  lakes,  beautiful  landscapes,  or  the  sublimities 
of  a  starry  firmament.  If,  then,  there  were  no  rational  in¬ 
telligences  in  the  planetary  worlds,  we  cannot  suppose  that 
so  many  grand  and  magnificent  arrangements  as  we  find  exist¬ 
ing  would  have  been  made ;  particularly,  we  cannot  suppose 
that  the  motions  of  the  planets  and  their  satellites  would 
have  been  so  accurately  adjusted  as  to  perform  their  revolutions 
with  so  much  precision  as  we  find  they  do.  The  regularity 
and  precision  of  these  motions  are  evidently  intended  to  serve 
as  accurate  measures  of  time  or  duration, — a  circumstance  which 
must  always  be  a  matter  of  importance  to  rational  beings 
wherever  existing,  but  which  seems  to  be  scarcely  attended  to, 
and  perhaps  not  in  the  least  appreciated,  by  merely  sentient 
beings,  such  as  the  lower  orders  of  animated  nature  which 
exist  around  us. 

From  what  has  been  now  stated,  we  may  conclude  that  the 
inhabitants  of  the  planets  are  not  purely  spiritual  beings ;  for 
pure  spirits,  entirely  divested  of  material  vehicles,  cannot  be 
supposed  to  have  a  permanent  connexion  with  any  mate¬ 
rial  world  or  system;  nor  could  they  be  supposed  to  be 
affected  by  air,  light,  colours,  attraction,  or  other  material 
influences,  which  operate  on  the  surfaces  of  all  the  planetary 
bodies.  If  pure  intelligences,  disconnected  with  matter,  exist 
in  the  universe,  they  must  be  conceived  to  have  a  more  ex- 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS.  265 

pansive  range  than  the  limits  of  any  one  globe,  and  those 
material  agencies  which  affect  the  organs  of  sensitive  exist¬ 
ence  cannot  be  supposed  to  operate  upon  them ;  and,  conse¬ 
quently,  their  modes  of  perception  must  be  altogether  different 
from  those  of  organized  intelligences.  We  may  therefore 
with  certainty  conclude  that  the  intelligent  beings  connected 
with  the  planetary  worlds,  either  of  our  own  or  of  other  sys¬ 
tems,  are  furnished  with  bodies ,  or  corporeal  vehicles  of  some 
kind  or  other.  These  may  differ  in  size  and  form  in  different 
planets ;  perhaps  their  size  may  depend  on  the  amplitude  of 
space  which  the  different  planets  may  contain.  But  I  cannot 
acquiesce  in  a  supposition  lately  thrown  out  by  a  certain  re¬ 
viewer,  that  “  in  some  worlds  the  inhabitants  may  be  as  large 
as  mountains,  and  in  others  as  small  as  emmets.”  In  the  one 
case,  comparatively  few  inhabitants  could  live  in  a  world 
where  every  one  was  a  walking  Mount  Blanc  or  Mount  Etna; 
and  it  would  be  contrary  to  all  the  known  arrangements  of 
the  Creator,  who  appears  to  act  on  the  principle  of  compress¬ 
ing  into  a  small  space  the  greatest  degree  of  sensitive  and 
intellectual  enjoyment.  Besides,  such  a  huge  mass  of  matter 
as  a  mountain  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  in  all  probability 
would  be  highly  injurious  to  the  exercise  of  the  intellectual 
faculties.  In  the  other  case,  were  rational  beings  as  small  as 
emmets,  they  could  neither  contemplate  the  beauties  and  sub¬ 
limities  of  the  scene  of  nature  around  them,  nor  the  glories 
of  the  starry  firmament ;  their  range  of  vision  could  extend 
only  a  few  feet  or  yards  around  them,  and  they  never  could 
be  able  to  explore  the  nature,  extent,  and  peculiarities  of 
scenery  of  the  world  they  inhabited.  So  that  all  such  sup¬ 
positions  are  evidently  extravagant  and  absurd,  being  directly 
contrary  to  the  proportion  and  harmony  which  exist  in  the 
universe,  and  which  characterize  all  the  arrangements  of  the 
Creator.  In  regard  to  the  powers  of  locomotion,  there  may 
be  considerable  differences  in  different  worlds.  In  many  in¬ 
stances  there  is  reason  to  believe  their  inhabitants  are  enabled 
to  transport  themselves  from  one  region  to  another  with  a 
velocity  far  surpassing  the  locomotive  powers  of  man.  In 
the  planet  Venus  some  of  the  mountains  are  reckoned  to  be 
twenty-two  miles  in  perpendicular  elevation,  from  the  top  of 
which  eminences  the  most  sublime  and  diversified  prospects 
must  be  enjoyed  ;  and  in  order  that  its  inhabitants  may  be 
enabled  to  ascend  with  ease  such  lofty  elevations,  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  believe  that  they  are  endowed  with  powers 
of  motion  far  superior  to  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  our 
globe. 

Vol.  VIII. 


23 


266 


VISUAL  ORGANS  OF  THE 


3.  The  inhabitants  of  the  planets  are  furnished  with  organs 
of  sensation,  particularly  with  the  organ  of  vision.  This  may 
oe  certainly  deduced  from  the  fact,  that  there  are  connected 
with  the  planets  arrangements  for  the  equable  distribution  of 
light.  The  sun,  the  source  of  illumination,  is  placed  in  the 
centre  of  the  system  for  diffusing  light  in  certain  proportions 
over  the  surfaces  of  all  the  planets,  their  satellites,  and  their 
rings.  Each  planetary  body  revolves  round  its  axis,  in  order 
that  every  part  of  its  surface  may  alternately  enjoy  the  benefit 
of  the  solar  radiation.  Around  the  larger  planets  are  moons 
for  the  distribution  of  light  in  the  absence  of  the  sun;  and  one 
of  them  is  invested  with  a  splendid  double  ring,  which  reflects 
the  solar  rays  during  night  both  on  the  surface  of  the  planet 
itself  and  on  the  surfaces  of  its  moons.  This  diversified 
apparatus  for  the  diffusion  of  light  evidently  appears  to  be  an 
arrangement  of  means  in  order  to  the  accomplishment  of  an 
important  end  ;  for  it  would  be  a  reflection  on  the  character  of 
the  All-wise  Contriver  to  suppose  that  means  have  been  ar¬ 
ranged  where  no  appropriate  end  is  intended  to  be  accom¬ 
plished  ;  but  all  the  arrangements  for  the  regular  and  equable 
diffusion  of  light  have  been  made  in  vain,  if  there  be  no  eyes 
or  organs  of  vision  on  which  light  may  act;  for  mountains, 
and  vales,  and  barren  deserts  do  not  require  its  regular  influ¬ 
ence.  That  there  are  beings  furnished  with  visual  organs 
throughout  all  the  worlds  and  systems  of  matter  in  the  uni¬ 
verse  appears  from  the  consideration,  that  not  only  in  our  own 
system,  but  among  the  myriads  of  fixed  stars  dispersed  through¬ 
out  immensity,  provision  is  made  for  such  organs  in  the  ex¬ 
istence  of  light ,  which  is  a  substance  that  appears  to  be  uni¬ 
versally  diffused  throughout  creation.  It  is  found  by  experi¬ 
ment,  that  the  light  which  radiates  from  the  most  distant  star 
is  of  the  same  nature  as  that  which  emanates  from  the  sun.  It 
is  refracted  and  reflected  by  the  same  laws,  and  consists  of 
the  same  colours,  as  that  which  illuminates  the  bodies  which 
compose  the  solar  system,  and  which  throws  a  lustre  on  the 
objects  immediately  around  us.  The  mediums  of  vision  must 
therefore  be  acted  upon  by  light,  in  the  most  distant  regions 
of  creation,  in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  with  us,  although 
there  may  be  numerous  varieties  and  modifications  of  the 
visual  organs,  so  as  to  render  vision  far  more  perfect  and  ex¬ 
tensive  than  in  the  case  of  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe.  We 
find  that  there  is  an  immense  variety  in  the  modes  of  vision 
among  the  lower  animals.  Some  of  the  smaller  insects  have 
their  eyes  nearly  of  a  globular  form  and  very  small,  so  that 
they  can  see  only  a  few  inches  around  them ;  while  the  eyes 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS.  267 

of  other  animals,  such  as  the  eagle,  are  so  constructed  that 
they  can  perceive  their  prey  at  a  great  distance,  and  from  a 
very  elevated  position.  Some  animals  have  only  one  or  two 
visual  organs  or  eye-balls,  as  man,  birds,  and  quadrupeds ; 
others  have  eight,  as  in  the  case  of  spiders :  and  others  have 
several  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  of  transparent  globules, 
each  of  which  is  capable  of  forming  a  distinct  image  of  any 
object,  as  is  the  case  with  flies,  butterflies,  and  other  insects. 
All  these  diversified  constructions  of  the  organs  of  vision, 
however,  perform  their  functions  according  to  the  same  in¬ 
variable  laws  of  optics. 

But  although  light  must  act  on  the  eyes  of  all  organized 
beings  in  a  manner  somewhat  similar,  or  at  least  analogous  to 
what  it  does  on  our  organs,  yet  there  may  be  certain  configu¬ 
rations  of  the  organ  of  vision  by  which  a  more  glorious  and 
extensive  effect  is  produced  than  by  the  human  eye.  The  in¬ 
habitants  of  some  other  worlds,  instead  of  being  confined  in 
their  range  of  vision  as  we  are,  may  be  able  to  penetrate 
through  space  to  an  indefinite  extent,  and  to  perceive  with 
distinctness  all  the  prominent  objects  connected  with  neigh¬ 
bouring  worlds  ;  and  even  the  peculiarities  of  distant  suns  and 
systems  may  be  within  the  range  of  their  view.  The  differ - 
ence  between  the  eye  of  an  insect,  which  sees  only  an  inch  or 
two  around  it,  and  the  eye  of  a  man,  which  can  grasp  at  once 
an  extensive  landscape,  is  perhaps  as  great  as  the  difference 
between  the  vigour  and  extent  of  human  eyes  and  such  organs 
of  vision  as  I  have  now  supposed.  And  who  shall  set  boun¬ 
daries  to  the  mechanisms  of  infinite  wisdom,  especially  when 
we  consider  the  varieties  which  exist  in  our  terrestrial  system  ? 
It  is  not  beyond  the  limits  of  probability  that  an  inhabitant  of 
Jupiter  may  be  able  to  perceive  and  to  trace  all  the  variety  of 
scenery  connected  with  Saturn,  and  its  rings  and  satellites, 
and  to  distinguish  the  planets  that  revolve  around  other  suns, 
as  distinctly  as  we  perceive  with  a  telescope  the  satellites  with 
which  that  planet  is  attended.  We  have  experimental  proof 
that  the  inventions  of  art  can  extend  the  range  of  human  vision. 
The  rings  of  Saturn,  the  motions  of  its  satellites,  the  changes 
which  happen  in  the  belts  of  Jupiter — which  no  unassisted 
eye  could  ever  have  discerned, — and  millions  of  stars  a  thou¬ 
sand  times  more  distant  than  the  limits  of  natural  vision,  have 
been  brought  to  view  by  the  invention  of  the  telescope; 
which  shews  that  the  extent  of  human  vision  is  susceptible  of 
an  indefinite  increase.  And  if  man  can  thus  improve  his 
natural  vision,  we  need  not  doubt  that  the  Deity  has  infinite 
resources  at  his  command,  and  that  when  he  pleases,  he  can 


268 


LOCOMOTIVE  POWERS. 


construct  visual  organs  of  such  vast  and  extensive  powers  as 
far  surpass  the  limits  of  our  comprehension ;  and  it  is  not  im¬ 
probable,  from  the  variety  already  known  to  exist,  that  such 
organs  are  actually  to  be  found  throughout  different  regions 
of  the  universe.  Our  extent  of  vision  by  the  telescope  is 
found  to  depend  on  the  extent  of  area  contained  in  the  object- 
glass,  or  speculum  of  that  instrument,  which  enables  the  eye 
to  take  in  a  greater  portion  of  rays  from  distant  objects  than  it 
can  do  in  its  natural  state ;  and  therefore,  if  our  eyes  were 
formed  with  pupils  of  a  large  dimension,  and  with  a  corres¬ 
ponding  degree  of  nervous  sensibility  in  the  retina,  we  might 
be  enabled  to  penetrate  into  space  to  an  extent  of  which  we 
have  no  conception.  Such  modifications  of  vision,  and  thou¬ 
sands  of  others,  are  obviously  within  the  power  of  Him  who 
at  first  organized  all  the  tribes  of  animated  existence. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  it  is  one  great  design  of  the  Crea¬ 
tor  to  exhibit  to  all  intelligent  beings  throughout  creation  a 
visible  display  of  his  glory  through  the  medium  of  their  visual 
organs  ;  for  where  no  organs  of  vision  exist,  the  wonderful  ap¬ 
paratus  for  the  production  and  distribution  of  light  so  con¬ 
spicuous  throughout  the  universe,  exists  in  vain ;  and  there¬ 
fore,  if  it  be  allowed  to  reason  from  the  means  to  the  end,  or 
from  the  cause  to  the  effect,  we  must  admit  that  the  universal 
diffusion  of  light  through  infinite  space,  from  an  infinite  variety 
of  bodies,  must  be  intended  to  produce  vision  through  the 
medium  of  organs  similar  or  analogous  to  ours  ;  in  order  that 
rational  beings  may  enjoy  the  pleasures  arising  from  this 
sense,  and  be  enabled  to  appreciate  the  wonders  of  the  uni¬ 
verse,  and  the  perfections  of  its  Creator.  The  variety  of 
means  and  contrivances  for  the  diffusion  of  light  throughout 
creation  is  therefore  a  demonstrative  evidence  both  of  the  ex¬ 
istence  of  intelligent  beings  in  other  worlds,  and  that  they  are 
furnished  with  visual  organs  for  the  purpose  of  contemplating 
the  objects  which  it  renders  visible. 

4.  The  inhabitants  of  other  worlds  are  invested  with  loco¬ 
motive  powers.  This  we  may  infer  from  the  amplitude  of 
space  which  every  world  contains,  and  from  the  consideration 
that  they  are  social  beings,  and  hold  a  regular  intercourse 
with  each  other.  We  must,  indeed,  necessarily  suppose  that 
there  are  no  rational  beings  confined  to  one  spot  or  point  of 
space,  as  a  tree,  a  shrub,  or  any  other  vegetable  ;  for  if  this 
were  the  case,  there  could  be  no  improvement  either  in  know¬ 
ledge  or  in  moral  action,  the  capacity  of  the  intellect  could 
never  be  expanded,  the  variety  of  beauties  and  sublimities 
which  distinguish  all  the  works  of  God  could  never  be  pro- 


LOCOMOTIVE  POWERS. 


269 


perly  contemplated,  most  of  the  pleasures  peculiar  to  an  intel¬ 
ligent  being  could  never  be  enjoyed,  and  the  manifold  delights 
which  flow  from  social  intercourse  and  the  contemplation  of 
diversified  scenes  and  objects  could  never  be  experienced 
The  supposition  of  an  incapacity  for  local  motion  is  therefore 
inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  a  rational  being,  and  almost  in¬ 
volves  an  absurdity.  We  find,  moreover,  that  in  many  of  the 
planets,  particularly  in  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  there  is  the  most 
ample  space  provided  for  exercising  the  powers  of  locomo¬ 
tion  ;  these  two  planets  containing  more  than  220  times  the 
area  of  the  earth’s  surface,  which  affords  a  vast  field  for  ex¬ 
cursion,  and  for  observation  to  their  inhabitants.  These  loco¬ 
motive  powers  may  be  very  different  from  those  of  man,  both 
in  their  fleetness  and  in  their  mode  of  operation.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  that  in  many  instances  they  will  far  exceed 
ours  in  swiftness,  and  in  the  ease  with  which  they  may  be 
performed ;  for  if  birds  and  flying  insects,  and  even  certain 
quadrupeds,  are  endowed  with  powers  of  motion  far  more 
swift  and  energetic  than  those  of  man,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  rational  and  social  beings,  in  more  expansive  worlds  than 
ours,  are  capable  of  traversing  space  with  much  more  ease 
and  agility  than  the  human  inhabitants  of  our  globe,  otherwise 
they  could  not  be  supposed  for  ages  to  accomplish  a  survey  of 
the  world  in  which  they  dwell,  or  to  become  acquainted  with 
its  leading  features.  Whether  such  motions,  however,  are  per¬ 
formed  on  a  principle  analogous  to  that  on  which  the  wings  of 
birds  are  constructed,  or  on  any  other  principle  to  us  unknown, 
is  beyond  our  province  to  determine. 

5.  W e  may  also  infer  that  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds 
are  furnished  with  a  sense  corresponding  to  the  organ  of  hear  ¬ 
ing, ,  and  a  faculty  of  emitting  articulate  sounds.  Without 
such  a  sense  and  faculty,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive 
that  social  intercourse,  and  a  mutual  interchange  of  sentiment 
and  feeling  could  be  carried  on  to  any  extent,  or  with  any 
great  degree  of  pleasure  or  improvement,  among  organized 
beings.  Pure  spirits  may  have  modes  of  intercourse  and  of 
communicating  thought  peculiar  to  themselves,  of  which  we 
can  at  present  form  no  distinct  conception ;  but  organized 
intelligences  must  necessarily  have  some  material  mediums, 
or  faculties,  by  which  sentiments  and  emotions  may  be  ex¬ 
pressed  and  communicated.  Some  of  the  planets  are  found 
to  be  environed  with  atmospheres ;  and  as  air  is  the  medium 
of  sound  in  our  terrestrial  region,  it  doubtless  serves  a 
similar  purpose  in  other  worlds ;  and  consequently  wre  may 
conclude  that  the  animated  beings  they  contain  are  furnished 

23* 


270 


CIRCUMSTANCES  CONNECTED  WITH 


with  organs  for  the  perception  of  sounds  in  all  their  modula¬ 
tions.  In  the  representations  given  in  the  sacred  records  of 
the  exercises  of  superior  beings,  they  are  exhibited  as  uttering 
articulate  sounds,  and  joining  in  the  harmonies  of  music. 
When  a  multitude  of  angels  descended  on  the  plains  of  Beth¬ 
lehem  to  announce  the  birth  of  Messiah  to  the  shepherds,  they 
uttered  articulate  sounds,  and  joined  in  musical  strains  which 
struck  the  ears  of  the  shepherds,  and  conveyed  a  distinct  im¬ 
pression  of  the  meaning  of  the  sentiments  communicated ; 
which  circumstance  leads  us  to  conclude,  that  superior  intel¬ 
ligences  in  other  regions  express  sentiments  and  emotions  in 
a  manner  somewhat  similar  to  that  in  which  we  hold  inter¬ 
course  with  one  another,  by  the  faculties  of  speech  and 
hearing. 

6.  It  might,  perhaps,  be  inferred  from  the  rotation  of  the 
planets — which  produces  the  alternations  of  light  and  dark¬ 
ness — that  their  inhabitants  are  subject  to  something  analo¬ 
gous  to  sleep ,  or  stated  intervals  of  repose.  This  may  pro¬ 
bably  be  the  case  in  some  of  the  planets,  such  as  Mars  or 
Mercury,  which  are  unaccompanied  with  satellites;  but  we 
know  too  little  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  other  worlds 
to  warrant  us  to  speak  decisively  on  this  point,  as  the  bodies 
of  the  inhabitants  of  other  planets  may  be  so  constructed  as 
not  to  stand  in  need  of  being  daily  invigorated  by  repose  as 
the  bodies  of  men.  Besides,  the  celestial  scenery  of  some  of 
the  planets  is  so  grand,  diversified,  and  picturesque,  that  a 
considerable  part  of  their  studies  and  social  pleasures  may  be 
prosecuted  and  enjoyed  amidst  the  solemn  grandeur  and  beau¬ 
tiful  diversity  of  their  nocturnal  scenes,  and  their  contempla¬ 
tions  directed  to  the  interesting  objects  then  presented  to  their 
view.  This  is  probably  the  case  in  the  regions  of  Jupiter  and 
Uranus, — particularly  in  Saturn,  where  seven  moons  may  occa¬ 
sionally  be  beheld  in  the  nocturnal  heavens,  all  exhibiting 
different  phases ,  —  some  of  them  changing  their  apparent 
phases,  magnitude,  and  motion  with  great  rapidity  ;  some  of 
them  entering  into  an  eclipse ;  and  others  emerging  from  it ; 
while  two  stupendous  rings  stretch  across  the  concave  of  the 
sky,  presenting  every  moment  different  objects  on  their  sur¬ 
face  in  the  course  of  their  rapid  diurnal  revolution.  Such 
scenes  will,  perhaps,  be  more  interesting  to  the  inhabitants  of 
this  planet  than  all  the  splendours  of  their  noon-day  for  all 
the  objects  on  the  surface  of  this  planet,  and  likewise  those 
on  Jupiter  and  Uranus,  will  present  a  different  aspect  from 

*  For  a  particular  description  of  these  scenes,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
“  Celestial  Scenery,”  chap.  viii.  pp.  299 — 331. 


THE  INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


271 


what  they  do  in  the  day-time.  Being  illuminated  by  the  light 
reflected  from  a  retinue  of  moons,  and  by  the  still  more  efful¬ 
gent  splendour  emitted  from  the  spacious  rings,  every  object 
will  appear  enlightened  and  distinctly  visible,  a  diversity  of 
colouring  will  be  exhibited  by  the  diversity  of  reflected  rays 
proceeding  from  the  different  moons  and  rings,  and  the  sha¬ 
dows  of  objects  will  be  increased  and  blended  together,  and 
thrown  in  different  directions,  according  to  the  number  and 
relative  positions  of  the  nocturnal  luminaries  which  ma}^  hap¬ 
pen  to  be  above  their  horizon.  On  which  account,  I  should 
be  disposed  to  conclude  that  the  inhabitants  of  such  planets 
have  their  physical  constitutions  organized  in  such  a  manner 
by  Divine  Wisdom  as  to  fit  them  for  perpetual  activity,  with¬ 
out  standing  in  need  of  any  repose  similar  to  that  of  sleep. 

The  above  cursory  remarks  respecting  the  physical  state  of 
the  planetary  inhabitants  have  been  deduced  chiefly  from  the 
ascertained  circumstances  and  phenomena  of  the  planets,  and 
from  the  general  constitution  and  economy  of  the  universe. 
Several  other  conclusions  might  likewise  have  been  deduced, 
but  I  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  the  regions  of  mere  conjec¬ 
ture.  As  rational  and  intelligent  beings,  the  inhabitants  of 
other  worlds  must  necessarily  be  considered  as  prosecuting 
the  study  of  useful  science  in  reference  to  all  those  depart¬ 
ments  of  nature  which  lie  open  to  their  inspection,  and  that 
they  exercise  their  mental  faculties  in  such  pursuits  and  inves¬ 
tigations.  If  this  be  admitted,  then  we  must  necessarily  con¬ 
clude  that  they  use  all  the  requisite  means  for  the  investiga¬ 
tion  of  truth,  and  for  progressing  in  knowledge.  If,  for 
example,  they  engage  in  the  study  of  astronomy  (as  we  have 
reason  to  believe  the  inhabitants  of  all  worlds  do)  they  must 
make  observations,  both  general  and  particular ;  and  in  order 
to  do  so  with  accuracy  and  precision,  instruments  of  various 
descriptions  are  requisite,  and  the  management  of  these  re¬ 
quires  the  use  of  hands ,  or  some  bodily  parts  answering  a 
similar  purpose ;  for  none  of  the  lower  animals  on  our  globe 
that  are  deficient  in  such  a  member  could  perform  the  opera¬ 
tions  of  art  which  man  can  perform  by  the  use  of  his  hands. 
If  a  horse  or  a  bear  were  furnished  with  the  same  intellectual 
faculties  as  the  human  race,  and  still  retain  its  present  or¬ 
ganization,  it  could  make  little  or  no  progress  either  in 
science  or  art,  without  members  corresponding  to  human 
hands ;  and  therefore  wre  may  confidently  conclude  that 
members  similar  or  analogous  to  these  are  common  to  us  and 
to  the  planetary  inhabitants.  The  study  of  astronomy  like¬ 
wise  supposes  an  acquaintance  with  geometry.  The  truths  of 


212 


PROGRESSIVE  IMPROVEMENT 


geometry  must  be  the  same  in  every  region  of  the  universe, 
and  perhaps  of  equal  utility  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  most 
distant  worlds  as  to  man  on  earth.  They  are  truths  which  are 
eternal  and  unchangeable,  and  which  no  locality  or  circum¬ 
stances  within  the  limits  of  creation  can  possibly  alter  or 
modify ;  and  therefore  must  be  recognised,  in  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  by  every  rational  being.  The  Creator  himself  has  laid 
the  foundation  of  this  science,  for  he  presents  us  in  his  works 
with  geometrical  figures  of  various  descriptions, — with  circles, 
squares,  parallelograms,  hexagons  and  polygons — with  ellipses, 
spheres,  spheroids,  and  other  figures,  and  proposes  them,  as  it 
were,  to  our  study  and  contemplation.  With  geometry,  arith¬ 
metic  and  other  sciences  are  intimately  connected,  so  that  the 
study  of  the  one  supposes  that  of  the  other.  In  short,  truth, 
and  every  branch  of  knowledge  by  which  the  mind  of  a 
rational  being  can  be  adorned,  must  be  substantially  the  same 
in  every  world  throughout  the  amplitudes  of  creation. 

Some  persons,  however,  may  be  disposed  to  object,  that  the 
inhabitants  of  other  worlds  may  see  all  truths  intuitively ,  and 
that  they  may  have  no  need  to  use  any  means,  as  we  are 
obliged  to  do,  to  acquire  and  to  make  progress  in  knowledge, 
and  that  they  acquire  all  their  knowledge  at  once  without  any 
exertions, — opinions  which  have  been  frequently  broached  by 
divines,  in  reference  to  the  happiness  of  the  future  world. 
But  there  appears  no  foundation  for  such  opinions.  We  have 
reason  to  believe  that  every  intellectual  being  throughout 
creation  exerts  its  powers  for  the  acquisition  of  truth,  and  that 
its  advancement  in  knowledge  is  progressive  ;  for  its  faculties 
were  bestowed  for  the  very  purpose  that  they  might  be  ex¬ 
erted  on  all  the  different  objects  and  manifestations  of  the 
Divinity  within  its  reach ;  and  if  all  knowledge  were  intuitive 
and  required  no  exertion  of  the  mental  faculty,  the  individual 
would  be  reduced  to  something  like  a  mere  machine,  and 
would  be  deprived  of  the  pleasures  which  arise  from  mental 
research  and  investigation.  There  must  likewise  be  a  pro¬ 
gress  in  knowledge,  arising  from  the  consideration  of  the  im¬ 
mensity  of  the  Divine  Being,  and  of  his  works,  and  of  the 
limited  nature  of  finite  intelligences.  No  finite  being  can  ever 
grasp  the  incomprehensible  Divinity,  or  the  immensity  and 
variety  of  his  operations  throughout  boundless  space ;  but  it 
may  always  be  advancing  to  a  more  comprehensive  view  of 
the  perfections  and  the  empire  of  the  Eternal,  and  may  thus 
go  on  from  one  degree  of  knowledge  to  another,  gradually 
approximating  towards  perfection  during  all  the  periods  of  an 
immortal  existence,  but  will  never  reach  it ;  and  its  happiness 


OF  INTELLIGENT  BEINGS. 


273 


is  connected  with  this  circumstance,  that  it  will  never  reach 
perfection,  or  obtain  a  full  discovery  of  all  the  glories  of  the 
Divinity.  But  this  gradual  progression  and  expansion  of 
intellectual  views  will  be  a  perennial  source  of  felicity  to  all 
virtuous  intelligences.  Whereas,  were  the  whole  of  their 
knowledge  acquired  at  once,  or  after  a  short  period  of  dura¬ 
tion,  the  mind  would  flag,  mental  activity  would  cease,  the 
prospect  of  future  knowledge  and  enjoyment  would  be  cut 
off,  and  misery  to  a  certain  extent  would  take  possession  of 
the  soul. 

In  fine,  although  there  are,  doubtless,  marked  differences 
between  the  planetary  inhabitants  and  the  inhabitants  of  our 
globe,  and  although  the  natural  scenery  of  those  worlds  may 
be  considerably  different  from  ours,  yet  it  is  not  improbable, 
■were  we  transported  to  those  abodes,  that  we  should  feel  more 
at  home  in  their  society  and  arrangements  than  we  are  now 
apt  to  imagine,  provided  we  were  once  made  acquainted  with 
their  language,  or  mode  of  communicating  their  ideas.  For 
there  are  certain  relations,  sentiments,  dispositions,  and  virtues, 
which  must  be  common  to  intellectual  and  moral  beings, 
wherever  existing  throughout  the  material  universe.  In  re¬ 
spect  to  bodily  stature  and  appearance,  we  might  be  apt  to 
suspect  that  there  would  be  many  striking  differences  in  the 
aspect  of  the  inhabitants  of  another  planet,  and  that  strange 
and  novel  forms  of  corporeal  organization  would  every  where 
be  presented  to  view;  yet  it  is  just  as  probable  that  in  such  a 
world  we  should  contemplate  beings  not  much  unlike  our¬ 
selves,  and  animated  by  similar  or  analogous  views,  senti¬ 
ments,  and  feelings,  though  placed  in  circumstances  and  sur¬ 
rounded  with  a  scenery  very  different  fom  those  of  our  sub¬ 
lunary  region. 

Whether  we  may  ever  enjoy  an  intimate  correspondence 
with  beings  belonging  to  other  worlds,  is  a  question  which 
will  frequently  obtrude  itself  on  a  contemplative  mind.  It  is 
evident  that,  in  our  present  state,  all  direct  intercourse  with 
other  worlds  is  impossible.  The  law  of  gravitation,  which 
unites  all  the  worlds  in  the  universe  in  one  grand  system, 
separates  man  from  his  kindred  spirits  in  other  planets,  and 
interposes  an  impassable  barrier  to  his  excursions  to  distant 
regions,  and  to  his  correspondence  with  other  orders  of  in¬ 
tellectual  beings.  But  in  the  present  state  he  is  only  in  the 
infancy  of  his  being ;  he  is  destined  to  a  future  and  eternal 
state  of  existence,  where  the  range  of  his  faculties  and  his 
connexions  with  other  beings  will  be  indefinitely  expanded. 
UA  wide  ard  boundless  prospect  lies  before  him,”  and  during 


274  SPIRITUAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  ECONOMY. 


the  revolutions  of  an  interminable  duration,  he  will,  doubtless, 
be  brought  into  contact  and  correspondence  with  numerous 
orders  of  kindred  beings,  with  whom  he  may  be  permitted  to 
associate  on  terms  of  equality  and  of  endearing  friendship. 
All  the  virtuous  intelligences  throughout  creation  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  members  of  one  great  family ,  under  the  peculiar 
care  and  protection  of  the  Universal  Parent  ;  and  it  is  not 
improbable,  that  it  is  one  grand  design  of  the  Deity  to  promote 
a  regular  and  progressive  intercourse  among  the  several 
branches  of  his  intelligent  offspring,  though  at  distant  intervals 
and  in  divers  manners,  and  after  the  lapse  of  long  periods  of 
duration. 

Such  an  intercourse  may  be  necessary,  in  order  to  the  full 
expansion  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  faculties,  and  to  the 
acquisition  of  all  that  knowledge  which  relates  to  the  attri¬ 
butes  of  the  Divinity,  and  the  physical  and  moral  government 
of  the  universe.  For  this  purpose  it  may  be  necessary  that 
branches  of  the  universal  family  that  have  existed  in  different 
periods  of  duration,  and  in  regions  widely  separated  from 
each  other,  should  be  brought  into  mutual  association,  that 
they  may  communicate  to  each  other  the  results  of  their 
knowledge  and  experience,  the  diversity  of  physical  and  moral 
circumstances  in  which  they  have  been  placed,  and  the  differ¬ 
ent  arrangements  of  God’s  moral  government  to  which  they 
have  been  respectively  subjected.  Such  views  correspond 
with  the  representations  given  in  Scripture  in  reference  to  the 
heavenly  state.  The  spirits  of  “just  men  made  perfect”  are 
represented  as  joining  the  society  of  “  an  innumerable  com¬ 
pany  of  angels,”  which  are  only  another  order  of  rational 
beings ;  and  in  the  visions  of  celestial  bliss,  recorded  in  the 
book  of  Revelation,  both  men  and  the  angelic  hosts  are  ex¬ 
hibited  as  forming  one  society,  and  joining  in  unison  in  cele¬ 
brating  the  perfections  of  Him  who  sitteth  on  the  throne  of 
the  universe. 

But  should  the  laws  of  the  physical  system,  and  the  immense 
distances  which  intervene  between  the  several  worlds,  prevent 
such  associations  as  I  have  now  supposed,  there  may  be 
another  economy,  superior  to  the  physical,  which  may  con¬ 
sist  with  the  most  extensive  and  intimate  intercourse  of  all 
idtional  and  virtuous  beings.  There  may  be  a  spiritual 
economy  established  in  the  universe,  of  which  the  physical 
structure  of  creation  is  the  basis  or  platform,  or  the  introduc¬ 
tory  scene  in  which  rational  beings  are  trained  and  prepared 
for  being  members  of  the  higher  order  of  this  celestial  or  in¬ 
tellectual  economy.  It  appears  highly  probable  that  the  £rst 


SPIRITUAL  AND  INTELLECTUAL  ECONOMY.  275 

introduction  of  every  rational  creature  into  existence  is  on  the 
scene  of  a  physical  economy.  The  diversified  scenes  and 
relations  of  the  material  world  appear  to  be  necessary,  in  the 
infancy  of  being,  to  form  a  substratum  for  thought,  or  to  afford 
scope  for  the  exercise  of  the  moral  and  intellectual  powers,  or 
materials  on  which  these  powers  may  operate,  and  likewise 
for  exhibiting  a  sensible  display  of  the  character  and  perfec¬ 
tions  of  the  Almighty.  The  knowledge  which  may  thus 
be  acquired  of  the  scenes  and  relations  of  the  universe, 
and  of  the  attributes  and  moral  government  of  its  Omnipotent 
Author,  in  the  course  of  myriads  of  ages,  must  be  great  and 
extensive  beyond  what  we  can  well  conceive.  This  know¬ 
ledge  and  experience  of  physical  objects  and  relations  may 
prepare  the  rational  soul  for  entering  on  the  confines  of  a 
higher  and  nobler  economy,  where  immaterial  scenes  and  re¬ 
lations,  and  particularly  the  attributes  of  Divinity,  abstractly 
considered,  may  form  the  chief  objects  of  research  and  con¬ 
templation.  Under  such  a  state  of  economy,  we  may  con¬ 
ceive  that  intellectual  beings,  to  whatever  portion  of  the  ma¬ 
terial  universe  they  originally  belonged,  may  hold  the  most 
intimate  converse  with  one  another,  by  modes  peculiar  to  that 
economy,  and  which  are  beyond  the  conceptions  of  the  in¬ 
habitants  of  the  physical  universe ;  so  that  distance  in  point 
of  space  shall  form  no  insuperable  barrier  to  the  mutual  com¬ 
munication  of  sentiments  and  emotions. 

On  grounds  similar  to  those  now  stated,  we  might  conceive 
it  as  not  altogether  improbable,  that  the  spiritual  principle 
which  animates  the  lower  orders  of  animated  nature,  and 
which  in  some  cases  bears  a  near  resemblance  to  the  reason 
of  man,  may  be  susceptible  of  indefinite  expansion  and  im¬ 
provement  by  being  connected  with  a  superior  organization, 
and  that  such  beings  may  ultimately  pass  through  various 
gradations  of  rank  in  the  physical  and  intellectual  economy, 
till  they  arrive  at  a  station  superior  to  that  of  the  most  enlight¬ 
ened  and  improved  human  beings.  But  as  we  are  now  bor¬ 
dering  on  the  regions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty,  suffice  it  to 
say,  that  it  appears  highly  probable,  from  a  consideration  of 
the  Divine  benevolence,  of  the  relations  which  subsist  through¬ 
out  the  physical  and  intelligent  system,  and  of  the  intimations 
contained  in  the  records  of  revelation,  that  virtuous  and  holy 
intelligences,  from  different  regions  of  the  material  creation, 
as  brethren  of  the  same  great  family,  shall,  at  one  period  or 
another,  hold  the  most  intimate  converse  and  communion,  and 
rehearse  to  each  other  their  mutual  history  and  experience. 
Such  intercourse  would  evidently  enhance  that  felicity  which 


276 


MORAL  STATE  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


it  is  the  great  design  of  the  Creator  to  communicate,  and  the 
means  by  which  it  may  be  effected  are  obviously  within  the 
limits  of  infinite  Wisdom  and  Omnipotence. 

On  the  Moral  State  of  the  Inhabitants  of  other  Worlds. 

The  moral  state  of  intellectual  beings  in  other  worlds  is 
a  subject  of  still  greater  interest  and  importance  than  their 
physical  state  and  constitution,  and  the  scenes  of  nature  with 
which  they  are  surrounded ;  for  on  the  moral  temperament 
of  such  beings,  and  the  passions  and  affections  they  display, 
will  chiefly  depend  the  happiness  of  the  intelligent  system 
throughout  every  region  of  the  universe.  It  is  possible  to 
suppose  a  region  of  creation  furnished  with  every  thing  that  is 
grand,  beautiful  and  magnificent,  and  calculated  to  gratify  in 
the  highest  degree  the  senses  and  imagination,  and  yet  the 
abode  of  wretchedness  and  misery.  If  passions  and  disposi¬ 
tions  similar  to  those  which  actuate  the  most  vicious  and  de¬ 
praved  class  of  mankind  were  universally  to  prevail  in  any 
world,  however  beautiful  and  sublime  its  physical  arrange¬ 
ments,  true  happiness  would  be  banished  from  its  society,  and 
misery,  in  all  its  diversified  ramifications,  would  be  found  per¬ 
vading  its  abodes.  Even  the  tempers  and  dispositions  which 
are  frequently  exhibited  in  polished  society,  and  by  some  men 
who  call  themselves  Christians  and  philosophers,— -jealousy, 
emulation,  envy,  pride,  revenge,  selfishness,  and  such  like, — 
were  they  to  reign  uncontrolled  in  any  region,  would  soon 
transform  intellectual  beings  into  an  assemblage  of  fiends,  and 
banish  true  enjoyment  from  every  department  of  the  social 
system. 

If  these  sentiments  be  admitted,  it  will  follow,  that  were 
we  permitted  to.range  through  any  of  the  planetary  worlds, 
the  pleasures  and  enjoyments  of  such  an  excursion  would 
chiefly  depend  on  the  character  and  dispositions  of  those  who 
accompanied  us,  and  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  planet  through 
which  we  roamed.  W ere  we  to  be  treated  by  the  inhabitants 
of  another  world  in  the  same  way  as  Mr.  Park  was  treated  by 
the  Moors  when  he  was  traversing  the  wilds  of  Africa,  or  as 
a  poor  wretched  foreigner  is  sometimes  treated  in  our  own 
country,  we  should  find  little  enjoyment  amidst  all  the  beau¬ 
ties  and  novelties  of  scenery  which  might  meet  our  eye  in 
such  a  world  ;  for  upon  the  affections  and  conduct  of  intelli¬ 
gent  beings  towards  one  another  must  depend  the  happiness 
of  individuals,  and  of  the  whole  social  system  throughout 
every  department  of  creation. 


MORAL  STATE  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


277 


It  is  probable  that  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  all 
worlds  are  in  a  state  of  innocence,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
they  remain  in  that  state  of  moral  rectitude  in  which  they 
were  created ;  for  we  may  assume  it  as  an  axiom  that  every 
rational  being,  when  first  ushered  into  existence,  is  placed  in 
a  state  of  innocence  or  moral  rectitude,  without  any  natural 
bias  to  moral  evil.  To  suppose  the  contrary  would  be  to 
admit  that  the  Divine  Being,  who  is  possessed  of  perfect 
holiness  and  rectitude,  infuses  into  rational  beings  at  their 
creation  a  principle  of  sin,  or  a  tendency  to  moral  evil,  which 
would  be  inconsistent  with  every  scriptural  view  we  can  take 
of  the  character  of  God.  Such  beings,  therefore,  so  long  as 
they  continue  in  their  primeval  rectitude,  are  in  a  state  of 
happiness ;  and  every  arrangement  of  the  Creator  in  relation 
to  them  must  be  conceived  as  having  a  direct  tendency  to 
promote  their  sensitive  and  intellectual  enjoyment.  Moral 
evil,  however,  has  been  introduced  into  the  universe,  and  we 
know  by  experience  many  of  its  malignant  and  miserable 
effects.  For  any  thing  we  know  to  the  contrary,  the  opera¬ 
tion  of  this  principle  may  be  felt  in  some  other  worlds  be¬ 
sides  our  own,  though  we  have  reason  to  believe,  from  a 
consideration  of  Divine  goodness,  that  its  effects  are  not  very 
extensive.  Its  introduction  into  the  world  has  doubtless  been 
permitted  in  order  to  bring  about  a  greater  good  to  the  uni¬ 
verse  at  large  than  could  have  been  accomplished  without  it, 
in  order  to  exhibit  to  the  intelligent  system  a  display  of  the 
miserable  and  extensive  effects  which  necessarily  flow  from  a 
violation  of  th  e_original  moral  laws  given  forth  by  the  Crea¬ 
tor,  and  to  demonstrate  the  indispensable  necessity  of  an  uni¬ 
versal  adherence  to  these  laws,  in  order  to  secure  the  harmony 
and  the  happiness  of  the  intelligent  universe. 

In  conformity  to  the  axiom  stated  above,  we  must  neces¬ 
sarily  suppose  that  rational  beings,  wherever  existing,  were 
created  in  perfect  moral  purity,  and  had  a  law  or  laws  im¬ 
pressed  upon  their  minds  congenial  to  the  holiness  of  the 
Almighty  Creator,  and  calculated  to  promote  the  moral  order 
of  the  intelligent  system,  and  consequently  the  happiness  of 
every  individual  belonging  to  it.  Moral  order  consists  in  the 
harmonious  arrangement,  disposition,  and  conduct  of  intelli¬ 
gent  beings,  corresponding  to  the  relations  in  which  they 
stand  to  one  another  and  to  their  Creator,  and  calculated  to 
promote  their  mutual  happiness.  Wherever  moral  order  pre¬ 
vails,  every  being  holds  its  proper  station  in  the  universe,  acts 
according  to  the  nature  of  that  station,  uses  its  faculties  for 
the  purpose  for  which  they  were  originally  intended,  dis- 
Vol.  VIII.  24 


2  78 


MORAL  STATE  OF  THE 


plays  dispositions  and  emotions  towards  fellow-creatures 
and  the  Creator  corresponding  to  the  respective  relations 
in  which  they  stand,  and  endeavours  to  promote  enjoyment 
among  all  surrounding  beings.*  For  the  purpose  of  secur¬ 
ing  moral  order,  certain  moral  laws  must  be  supposed  to  be 
promulgated  by  the  Creator,  or  at  least  written  upon  the  hearts 
of  all  rational  beings,  as  principles  of  action,  to  regulate  all 
the  movements  of  the  intelligent  system.  These  laws  must 
be  substantially  the  same  as  to  their  general  bearings  through¬ 
out  all  the  worlds  in  the  universe. 

Eut,  it  may  be  asked,  what  are  those  general  laws  to  which  I 
allude,  and  have  they  ever  been  promulgated  to  man  upon  earth  ? 

I  answer,  they  have  actually  been  revealed  to  the  inhabitants 
of  our  globe  by  the  highest  authority,  and  reason  can  demon¬ 
strate  their  applicability  to  all  worlds.  They  are  these — • 

i4THOU  SHALT  LOVE  THE  LORD  THY  GOD  WITH  ALL  THY 
HEART,  AND  WITH  ALL  THY  MIND,  AND  WITH  ALL  THY 

strength.  This  is  the  first  and  great  commandment.  And 
the  second  is  like  unto  it:  Tiiou  shalt  love  thy  neigh¬ 
bour  as  thyself.”  These  laws  are  not  to  be  considered  as 
confined  merely  to  the  regulation  of  the  affections  and  actions 
of  human  beings,  but  to  every  individual  of  the  moral  sys¬ 
tem,  wherever  existing ;  for  we  cannot  for  a  moment  suppose 
that  laws  directly  opposite  to  these  would  be  given  by  the 
Creator  to  any  class  of  intelligences.  It  would  be  inconsis¬ 
tent  with  every  thing  we  know  of  the  character  of  the  Divi¬ 
nity  to  imagine  that  he  would  promulgate  to  any  class  of 
beings  such  laws  as  these  : — u  Thou  shalt  hate  thy  Creator,” 
and  “  thou  shalt  hate  all  thy  fellow-creatures.”  And  if  such 
an  idea  would  evidently  involve  in  it  a  glaring  inconsistency 
and  absurdity,  then  it  follows  that  the  very  opposite  of  such 
injunctions  must  be  the  general  principles  which  govern  the 
inhabitants  of  all  worlds  that  have  retained  their  allegiance 
to  their  Creator.  There  is  not  a  single  being  possessed  of  a 
rational  nature,  either  in  the  planetary  system  to  which  we 
belong  or  to  any  other  system  throughout  the  sidereal  hea¬ 
vens,  but  is  under  indispensable  obligations  to  regulate  its 
conduct  by  the  two  general  laws  or  principles  to  which  we 
have  referred,  and  to  yield  a  complete  and  unreserved  obe¬ 
dience  to  all  that  is  included  in  such  requisitions.  Wherever 
such  obedience  is  complete,  order,  harmony,  and  happiness 
are  the  natural  and  necessary  results ;  but  could  we  suppose 
these  laws  reversed,  and  the  inhabitants  of  any  worlds  to  act 

*  For  a  particular  illustration  of  moral  order ,  the  reader  is  referred  to 

II  The  Philosophy  of  Religion,’  ’  Preliminary  Definitions,  sect.  i. 


INHABITANTS  OF  OTHER  WORLDS. 


279 


on  principles  directly  opposite,  a  scene  of  anarchy,  confusion, 
and  misery  would  ensue,  which  would  completely  disorganize 
the  social  system,  and  render  existence  a  curse  rather  than  a 
blessing;  and  in  worlds  where  those  laws  are  partially  vio¬ 
lated,  as  in  the  world  in  which  we  dwell,  disorder  and  misery 
will  be  the  result  in  proportion  to  the  frequency  and  extent 
of  their  violation. 

These  are  the  laws  by  which  not  only  man  on  earth,  but 
all  u  the  principalities  and  powers  of  heaven,”  are  governed 
and  directed,  and  by  which  they  are  bound  to  regulate  all 
their  thoughts,  affections,  and  conduct.  The  lowest  orders 
of  rational  existence  come  within  the  range  of  these  univer¬ 
sal  laws,  and  the  highest  orders  of  the  seraphim  are  not  be¬ 
yond  their  control.  As  the  law  of  gravitation  extends  its 
influence  throughout  all  the  planetary  worlds,  and  even  to  the 
remotest  stars,  uniting  the  whole  in  one  harmonious  system, 
so  the  law  of  universal  love  diffuses  its  influence  over  the 
intelligent  universe,  uniting  the  individuals  who  are  subject  to 
its  sway  in  one  harmonious  and  happy  association.  Hence 
it  follows,  that  were  we  completely  animated  by  this  noble 
principle,  and  were  we  permitted  to  visit  those  worlds  where 
it  reigns  supreme,  and  to  mingle  with  their  inhabitants,  we 
should  be  recognised  as  friends  and  brethren,  and  participate 
of  all  those  pleasures  and  enjoyments  of  which  it  is  the 
source.  The  full  recognition,  then,  of  the  laws  to  which  we 
have  referred,  and  their  complete  and  uninterrupted  influence 
over  the  moral  powers,  may  be  considered  as  qualifying  the 
individual  for  being  a  citizen  of  the  great  moral  universe,  and 
for  associating  with  all  holy  beings  throughout  the  wide  em¬ 
pire  of  omnipotence,  should  he  ever  be  permitted,  at  any 
period  of  duration,  to  visit  other  worlds,  and  mingle  with 
other  orders  of  rational  intelligences.* 

These  laws,  in  reference  to  the  inhabitants  of  our  world, 
diverge  into  numerous  ramifications.  The  precepts  of  the 
moral  law,  or  the  ten  commandments,  are  so  many  branches 
of  moral  duty  flowing  from  these  first  principles ;  and  in  the 
discourses  of  our  Saviour  and  the  practical  parts  of  the  apos¬ 
tolic  epistles  they  diverge  into  still  more  specific  and  minute 
ramifications,  bearing  upon  all  the  diversified  relations  of  life 
and  the  various  circumstances  connected  with  moral  conduct. 
But  all  the  particular  rules  and  precepts  alluded  to  are  resolv¬ 
able  into  the  general  principles  or  affections  stated  above, 
and  bear  the  same  relation  to  each  other  as  the  trunk  of  a  tree 

*  For  more  particular  details  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
n  The  Philosophy  of  Religion,”  particularly  chap,  ii.,  sect.  vi. 


280  MORAL  LAWS  COMMON  TO  ALL  WORLDS. 


to  its  branches,  or  as  a  fountain  to  the  diversified  streams 
which  it  sends  forth.  Jn  other  worlds  relations  may  exist 
different  from  those  which  are  found  in  human  society,  and 
consequently  particular  precepts  different  from  ours  may  form 
a  part  of  their  moral  code,  while  certain  relations  which  obtain 
among  us  may  have  no  place  among  other  orders  of  beings, 
and  of  course,  the  precepts  which  particularly  bear  upon  such 
relations  will  be  in  their  circumstances  altogether  unnecessary. 
But  we  may  rest  assured  that  all  the  particular  precepts,  ap¬ 
plicable  to  whatever  circumstances  and  relations  may  exist  in 
other  regions  of  creation,  will  be  founded  on  the  universal 
principles  to  which  we  have  adverted,  and  be  completely  con¬ 
formable  to  their  spirit,  and  to  the  benevolent  designs  they  are 
intended  to  accomplish. 

In  all  those  worlds  where  the  love  of  God  and  of  fellow- 
intelligences  reigns  supreme,  the  inhabitants  maybe  conceived 
to  make  rapid  improvements  in  knowledge  ;  for  the  malignant 
principles  and  passions  which  prevail  among  men  have,  in 
numerous  instances,  been  the  means  of  retarding  the  progress 
of  useful  science  and  its  diffusion  throughout  society.  But 
where  love  in  all  its  emanations  pervades  every  mind,  society 
will  unite  and  harmonize  in  the  prosecution  of  every  plan  by 
which  the  intellectual  faculty  may  be  irradiated  and  happiness 
diffused.  Besides,  in  such  a  state  of  society,  truth  will  be  for 
ever  triumphant  and  falsehood  unknown.  Every  fact  will  be 
fairly  and  truly  exhibited  without  deception,  or  the  least  ten¬ 
dency  to  misrepresentation  or  exaggeration.  There  will  be 
the  most  complete  reliance  on  personal  evidence  in  regard  to 
every  fact  and  circumstance  which  has  been  witnessed  by  any 
individuals ;  for  want  of  which  confidence  in  our  world,  the 
rational  inquirer  has  been  perplexed  by  the  jarring  statements 
of  lying  travellers  and  pretended  philosophers ;  erroneous 
theories  have  been  framed,  the  mists  of  falsehood  have  inter¬ 
cepted  the  light  of  truth,  the  foundations  of  true  knowledge 
undermined,  and  science  arrested  in  its  progress  towards  per¬ 
fection.  All  such  evils,  however,  will  be  unknown  in  worlds 
where  the  inhabitants  have  arrived  at  moral  perfection. 

In  fine,  from  what  has  been  now  stated,  we  may  conclude 
that  the  spirit ,  the  principle ,  and  essence  of  our  holy  religion, 
as  delineated  in  the  Scriptures,  must  be  common  to  all  the 
inhabitants  of  the  universe  who  have  retained  their  primeval 
rectitude  and  innocence. 


SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 


281 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

A  SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 

Having  in  the  preceding  pages  offered  a  few  sketches  in 
reference  to  the  principal  facts  connected  with  the  sidereal 
heavens,  which  constitute  the  most  extensive  portion  of  crea¬ 
tion  within  the  limits  of  our  knowledge,  it  may  not  be  inexpe¬ 
dient  to  take  a  summary  view  of  the  range  of  objects  to  which 
our  attention  has  been  directed,  in  order  to  direct  our  occa¬ 
sional  reflections  on  this  subject,  and  to  enable  us  to  form  an 
approximate,  though  faint  and  limited,  idea  of  that  universe 
over  which  Omnipotence  presides,  and  of  the  perfections  of 
its  adorable  Author. 

We  can  obtain  an  approximate  idea  of  the  universe  only  by 
commencing  a  train  of  thought  at  those  objects  with  which 
we  are  more  immediately  conversant,  and  ascending  gradually 
to  objects  and  scenes  more  distant  and  expansive.  We  are 
partly  acquainted  with  the  objects  which  constitute  the  land¬ 
scape  around  us,  of  which  we  form  a  part, — the  hills,  the 
plains,  the  lofty  mountains,  the  forests,  the  rivers,  the  lakes, 
and  the  portions  of  the  ocean  that  lie  immediately  adjacent. 
But  all  the  range  of  objects  we  can  behold  in  an  ordinary 
landscape  forms  but  a  very  small  and  inconsiderable  speck, 
compared  with  the  whole  of  the  mighty  continents  and 
islands,  the  vast  ranges  of  lofty  mountains,  and  the  expansive 
lakes,  seas,  and  oceans  which  constitute  the  surface  of  the 
terraqueous  globe.  It  would  be  requisite  that  more  than  nine 
hundred  thousand  landscapes ,  of  the  extent  we  generally  be¬ 
hold  around  us,  should  be  made  to  pass  in  review  before  us, 
and  a  sufficient  time  allowed  to  take  a  distinct  view  of  the 
objects  of  which  they  are  composed,  ere  we  could  form  an 
adequate  conception  of  the  magnitude  and  the  immense  va¬ 
riety  of  objects  on  the  whole  earth.  Were  only  twenty  mi¬ 
nutes  allotted  for  the  contemplation  of  every  landscape,  and 
ten  hours  every  day,  it  would  require  ninety  years  of  con¬ 
stant  observation  before  all  the  prominent  objects  on  the  sur¬ 
face  of  the  globe  could  thus  be  surveyed.  Were  it  possible 
to  take  a  distinct  mental  survey  of  such  a  number  of  land¬ 
scapes,  we  might  acquire  a  tolerable  conception  of  the  ampli¬ 
tude  of  our  globe,  and  it  would  serve  as  a  standard  of  compa¬ 
rison  for  other  globes  which  far  excel  it  in  magnitude.  But 

24* 


282 


SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 


I  believe  very  few  persons  are  capable  of  forming,  at  one  con¬ 
ception,  a  full  and  comprehensive  idea  of  the  superficial  extent 
of  the  world  in  which  we  dwell,  whose  surface  contains  no 
less  than  one  hundred  and  ninety-seven  millions  of  square 
miles.  The  most  complete  conception  we  can  form  must 
indeed  fall  very  far  short  of  the  reality. 

But  however  ample  and  correct  our  conceptions  might  be, 
and  however  great  this  earth  might  appear  in  the  view  of  the 
frail  beings  that  inhabit  it,  we  know  that  it  is  only  an  incon¬ 
siderable  ball,  when  compared  with  some  of  the  planetary  bo¬ 
dies  belonging  to  our  own  system.  One  of  these  bodies  would 
contain  within  its  dimensions  nine  hundred  globes  as  large  as 
this  earth, — another,  fourteen  hundred  of  similar  globes ;  and 
were  five  hundred  globes,  as  large  as  that  on  which  we  dwell, 
arranged  on  a  vast  plane,  the  outermost  ring  of  the  planet 
Saturn,  which  is  643,000  miles  in  circumference,  would  en¬ 
close  them  all.  Such  are  the  vast  dimensions  of  some  of 
those  revolving  bodies,  which  appear  only  like  lucid  specks 
on  the  concave  of  our  sky.  This  earth,  however,  and  all  the 
huge  planets,  satellites,  and  comets,  comprised  within  the 
range  of  the  solar  system,  bear  a  very  small  proportion  to 
that  splendid  luminary  which  enlightens  our  day.  The  sun 
is  five  hundred  times  larger  than  the  whole,  and  would  con¬ 
tain  within  its  vast  circumference  thirteen  hundred  thousand 
globes  as  large  as  our  world,  and  more  than  sixty  millions  of 
globes  of  the  size  of  the  moon.  To  contemplate  all  the  va¬ 
riety  of  scenery  on  the  surface  of  this  luminary,  would  require 
more  than  fifty-five  thousand  years,  although  a  landscape  of 
five  thousand  square  miles  in  extent  were  to  pass  before  our 
eyes  every  hour.  Of  a  globe  of  such  dimensions,  the  most 
vigorous  imagination,  after  its  boldest  and  most  extensive  ex¬ 
cursions,  can  form  no  adequate  conception.  It  appears  a  kind 
of  universe  in  itself ;  and  ten  thousands  of  years  would  be 
requisite  before  human  beings,  with  their  present  faculties, 
could  thoroughly  investigate  and  explore  its  vast  dimensions 
and  its  hidden  wonders. 

But  great  as  the  sun  and  his  surrounding  planets  are,  they 
dwindle  into  a  point  when  we  wing  our  flight  towards  the 
starry  firmament.  Before  we  could  arrive  at  the  nearest  ob¬ 
ject  in  this  firmament,  we  behoved  to  pass  over  a  space  at 
least  twenty  billions  of  miles  in  extent, — a  space  which  a 
cannon  ball,  flying  with  its  utmost  velocity,  would  not  pass 
over  in  less  than  four  millions  of  years.  Here  every  eye  in  a 
clear  winter’s  night  may  behold  about  a  thousand  shining 
orbs,  most  of  them  emitting  their  splendours  from  spaces  im- 


SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE.  283 

measurably  distant.;  and  bodies  at  such  distances  must  neces¬ 
sarily  be  of  immense  magnitude.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  least  twinkling  star  which  our  eye  can  discern  is  not 
less  than  the  sun  in  magnitude  and  in  splendour,  and  that 
many  of  them  are  even  a  hundred  or  a  thousand  times  supe¬ 
rior  in  magnitude  to  that  stupendous  luminary.  But  bodies 
of  such  amazing  size  and  splendour  cannot  be  supposed  to 
have  been  created  in  vain,  or  merely  to  diffuse  a  useless  lustre 
over  the  wilds  of  immensity.  Such  an  idea  would  be  utterly 
inconsistent  with  the  perfections  of  the  Divinity,  and  all  that 
we  know  of  his  character  from  the  revelations  of  his  word. 
If  this  earth  would  have  been  u  created  in  vain”  had  it  not 
been  inhabited,*  so  those  starry  orbs,  or,  in  other  words,  those 
magnificent  suns  would  likewise  have  been  created  in  vaiiq  if 
retinues  of  worlds  and  myriads  of  intelligent  beings  were  not 
irradiated  and  cheered  by  their  benign  influence. 

These  thousand  stars,  then,  which  the  unassisted  eye  can 
perceive  in  the  canopy  of  heaven,  may  be  considered  as  con¬ 
nected  with  at  least  fifty  thousand  worlds ;  compared  with  the 
amount  of  whose  population  all  the  inhabitants  of  our  globe 
would  appear  only  as  u  the  small  dust  of  the  balance.”  Here 
the  imagination  might  expatiate  for  ages  of  ages  in  surveying 
this  portion  of  the  Creator’s  kingdom,  and  be  lost  in  contem¬ 
plation  and  wonder  at  the  vast  extent,  the  magnitude,  the 
magnificence,  and  the  immense  variety  of  scenes,  objects,  and 
movements  which  would  meet  the  view  in  every  direction  ; 
for  here  we  have  presented  to  the  mental  eye,  not  only  single 
suns  and  single  systems,  such  as  that  to  which  we  belong, 
but  suns  revolving  around  suns,  and  systems  around  systems, 
— systems  not  only  double,  but  treble,  quadruple,  and  mul¬ 
tiple,  all  in  complicated  but  harmonious  motion,  performing 
motions  more  rapid  than  the  swiftest  planets  in  our  system, 
though  some  of  them  move  a  hundred  thousand  miles  every 
hour, — finishing  periods  of  revolution,  some  in  30,  some  in 
300,  and  some  in  1600  years.  We  behold  suns  of  a  blue  or 
green  lustre  revolving  around  suns  of  a  white  or  a  ruddy 
colour,  and  both  of  them  illuminating  with  contrasted  coloured 
light  the  same  assemblage  of  worlds.  And  if  the  various  or¬ 
ders  of  intelligences  connected  with  these  systems  were  un¬ 
veiled,  what  a  scene  of  grandeur,  magnificence,  variety,  diver¬ 
sity  of  intellect,  and  of  wonder  and  astonishment,  would  burst 
upon  the  view  !  Here  we  might  be  apt  to  imagine  that  the 
whole  glories  of  the  Creator’s  empire  have  been  disclosed,  and 


*  Isaiah,  xlv.  18. 


28 4  SUMMARY  VIEW  OP  THE  UNIVERSE. 

that  we  had  now  a  prospect  of  universal  nature  in  all  its  ex 
tent  and  grandeur. 

But  although  we  should  have  surveyed  the  whole  of  this 
magnificent  scene,  we  should  still  find  ourselves  standing  only 
on  the  outskirts,  or  the  extreme  verge  of  creation.  What  if 
all  the  stars  which  the  unassisted  eye  can  discern  be  only  a 
few  scattered  orbs  on  the  outskirts  of  a  cluster  immensely 
more  numerous  ?  What  if  all  this  scene  of  grandeur  be 
only  as  a  small  lucid  speck  compared  with  the  whole 
extent  of  the  firmament  ?  There  is  demonstrative  evi¬ 
dence  from  observation  that  this  is  in  reality  the  case.  In 
one  lucid  circle  in  the  heavens,  scarcely  perceptible  on  a 
cursory  view  of  the  firmament,  there  are  twenty  thousand 
times  more  stars  distinguishable  by  the  telescope  than  what 
the  naked  eye  can  discern  throughout  the  visible  canopy  of 
heaven.  The  Milky  Way,  were  it  supposed  to  contain  the 
same  number  of  stars  throughout  its  whole  extent  as  have 
been  observed  in  certain  portions  of  it,  would  comprise  no  less 
than  20,191,000  stars*,  and  as  each  of  these  stars  is  doubtless 
a  sun,  if  we  suppose  only  fifty  planets  or  worlds  connected 
with  each,  we  shall  have  no  less  than  1,009,550,000,  or  more 
than  a  thousand  millions  of  worlds  contained  within  the  space 
occupied  by  this  lucid  zone.  Here  an  idea  is  presented  which 
completely  overpowers  the  human  faculties,  and  at  which  the 
boldest  imagination  must  shrink  back  at  any  attempts  to  form 
an  approximate  conception.  A  thousand  millions  of  worlds! 
We  may  state  such  a  fact  in  numbers  or  in  words,  but  the 
brightest  and  most  expansive  human  intellect  must  utterly  fail 
in  grasping  all  that  is  comprehended  in  this  mighty  idea ;  and 
perhaps  intelligences  possessed  of  powers  far  superior  to 
those  of  man  are  inadequate  to  form  even  an  approximate 
conception  of  such  a  stupendous  scene.  Yet  this  scene, 
magnificent  and  overpowering  as  it  is  to  limited  minds  such  as 
ours,  is  not  the  scene  of  the  universe;  it  is  only  a  compara¬ 
tively  insignificant  speck  in  the  map  of  creation,  which  beings 
at  remote  distances  may  be  unable  to  detect  in  the  canopy  of 
their  sky,  or  at  most  will  discern  it  only  as  an  obscure  point  in 
the  furthest  extremities  of  their  view,  as  we  distinguish  a  faint 
nebulous  star  through  our  best  telescopes. 

Ascending  from  the  Milky  Way  to  the  still  remoter  re¬ 
gions  of  space,  we  perceive  several  thousands  of  dim  specks 
of  light  which  powerful  telescopes  resolve  into  immense  clus¬ 
ters  of  stars.  These  nebula,  as  they  are  called,  may  be  con¬ 
sidered  as  so  many  milky  ways,  and  some  of  them  are  supposed 
even  “to  outvie  our  Milky  Way  in  grandeur.”  Above  three 


IMMENSTTY  OF  CREATION. 


285 


thousand  of  these  nebulae  have  been  discovered ;  and  if  only 
two  thousand  be  supposed  to  be  resolvable  into  starry  groups, 
and  to  be  as  rich  in  stars  at  an  average  as  our  Milky  Way, 
then  we  are  presented  with  a  scene  which  comprises  2000 
times  20,191,000,  or  40,382,000,000,  that  is,  more  than  forty 
thousand  millions  of  stars.  And  if  we  suppose,  as  formerly, 
fifty  planetary  globes  to  be  connected  with  each,  we  have  ex¬ 
hibited  before  us  a  prospect  which  includes  2,019,100,000,000, 
or  two  billions,  nineteen  thousand  one  hundred  millions  of 
worlds.  Of  such  a  number  of  bodies  we  can  form  no  distinct 
conception,  and  much  less  can  we  form  even  a  rude  or  ap¬ 
proximate  idea  of  the  grandeur  and  magnificence  which  the 
whole  of  such  a  scene  must  display.  Were  we  to  suppose 
each  of  these  bodies  to  pass  in  review  before  us  every  minute , 
it  would  require  more  than  three  millions,  eight  hundred  and 
forty  thousand  years  of  unremitting  observation!  before  the 
whole  could  be  contemplated  even  in  this  rapid  manner. 
Were  an  hour’s  contemplation  allotted  to  each,  it  would  re¬ 
quire  two  hundred  and  thirty  millions,  four  hundred  thousand 
years  till  all  the  series  passed  under  review  ;  and  were  we  to 
suppose  an  intelligent  being  to  remain  fifty  years  in  each 
world  for  the  purpose  of  taking  a  more  minute  survey  of  its 
peculiar  scenery  and  decorations,  100,955,000,000,000,  or  a 
hundred  billions,  nine  hundred  and  fifty-five  thousand  millions 
of  years  would  elapse  before  such  a  survey  could  be  com¬ 
pleted  ;  a  number  of  years  which  to  limited  minds  seems  to 
approximate  to  something  like  eternity  itself. 

Still,  all  this  countless  assemblage  of  suns  and  worlds  is  not 
the  universe.  Although  we  could  range  on  the  wings  of  a 
seraph  through  all  this  confluence  of  sidereal  systems,  it  is 
more  than  probable  that  we  should  find  ourselves  standing 
only  on  the  verge  of  creation,  and  that  a  boundless  prospect, 
stretching  towards  infinity  on  every  side,  would  still  be  pre¬ 
sented  to  view  ;  for  we  cannot  suppose  for  a  moment  that  the 
empire  of  Omnipotence  terminates  at  the  boundaries  of  human 
vision,  even  when  assisted  by  the  most  powerful  instruments. 
Other  intelligences  may  have  powers  of  vision  capable  of 
penetrating  into  space  a  hundred  times  further  than  ours  when 
assisted  with  all  the  improvements  of  art;  but  even  such 
beings  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  penetrated  to  the  utter¬ 
most  boundaries  of  creation.  Man  in  future  ages,  by  the  im¬ 
provements  of  optical  instruments,  may  be  able  to  penetrate 
much  further  into  the  remote  regions  of  space  than  he  has 
hitherto  done,  and  may  descry  myriads  of  objects  which  have 
hitherto  remained  invisible  in  the  unexplored  regions  of  im- 


THE  UNIVERSE  UNSEARCHABLE. 


«86 

mensity.  Ever  since  the  invention  of  the  telescope,  one  dis 
covery  has  followed  another  in  almost  regular  succession.  In 
proportion  to  the  increase  and  activity  of  astronomical  obser¬ 
vers,  and  the  improvement  of  the  instruments  of  observation, 
the  more  remote  spaces  of  creation  have  been  explored,  and 
new  scenes  of  the  universe  laid  open  to  human  contemplation. 
And  who  shall  set  boundaries  to  the  improvements  and  dis¬ 
coveries  of  future  and  more  enlightened  generations  ?  Before 
the  invention  of  the  telescope,  it  would  have  been  foolish  to 
have  asserted  that  no  more  stars  existed  than  those  which 
were  visible  to  the  naked  eye  ;  and  after  Galileo  had  discovered 
with  his  lirst  telescope  hundreds  of  stars  which  were  pre¬ 
viously  unknown,  it  would  have  been  equally  absurd  to  have 
maintained  that  the  telescope  would  never  be  further  improved, 
and  that  no  additional  stars  would  afterwards  be  discovered. 
It  would  be  a  position  equally  untenable  to  maintain,  that  we 
shall  never  be  able  to  descry  objects  in  the  heavens  beyond 
the  boundaries  which  we  have  hitherto  explored,  since  science 
has  only  lately  commenced  its  rapid  progress,  and  since  man 
is  little  more  than  just  beginning  to  employ  his  powers  in 
such  investigations. 

But  however  extensive  may  be  the  discoveries  of  future 
ages,  we  may  lay  it  down  as  an  axiom,  that  neither  man  nor 
any  other  rank  of  finite  beings  will  ever  be  able  to  penetrate 
to  the  further  boundaries  of  the  creation.  It  would  be  presump¬ 
tuous  to  suppose  that  a  being  like  man, — whose  stature  is 
comprehended  within  the  extent  of  two  yards,  who  vanishes 
from  the  sight  at  the  distance  of  a  German  mile,  whose  whole 
habitation  sinks  into  an  invisible  point  at  the  distance  of 
Jupiter,  who  resides  on  one  of  the  smallest  class  of  bodies  in 
the  universe,  and  whose  powers  of  vision  and  of  intellect  are 
so  limited, — should  be  able  to  extend  his  views  to  the  extreme 
limits  of  the  empire  of  the  Eternal,  and  to  descry  all  the  sys¬ 
tems  which  are  dispersed  throughout  the  range  of  infinitude. 
It  is  more  reasonable  to  believe  that  all  that  has  yet  been  dis¬ 
covered  of  the  operations  of  Omnipotence  that  lie  within  the 
boundaries  of  human  vision,  is  but  a  very  small  portion  of 
what  actually  exists  within  the  limits  of  creation;  that  the 
two  billions,  and  nineteen  thousand  millions  of  worlds  which 
we  have  assumed  as  the  scene  of  the  visible  universe,  are  only 
as  a  single  star  to  the  whole  visible  firmament,  or  even  as  a 
single  grain  of  sand  to  all  the  myriads  of  particles  which 
cover  the  sea-shores  and  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  when  compared 
with  what  lies  beyond  the  utmost  range  of  mortal  vision;  for 
who  can  set  bounds  to  infinitude,  or  to  the  operations  of  Him 


287 


BODIES  OF  IMMENSE  MAUN  El'll  DM, 

whose  power  is  omnipotent,  u  whose  wnys  lire  unsearchable,” 
and  u  whoso  understanding  is  iidiuito?”  All  that  we  have 
yet  discovered  of  creative  existence,  vast  and  magnificent  as  it 
appears,  may  he  only  a  small  corner  of  some  mightier  scheme 
which  stretches  throughout  the  length  and  hreadth  of  immen¬ 
sity, — of  which  the  highest  created  intellect  may  have  only  a 
few  faint  glimpses,  which  will  he  gradually  opening  to  view 
throughout  the  revolutions  of  eternity,  and  which  will  never 
be  fully  explored  during  all  the  periods  of  an  interminable  ex¬ 
istence.  What  is  seen  and  known  of  creation  may  he  as 
nothing  compared  with  what  is  unseen  and  unknown  ;  and  as 
the  ages  ol  eternity  roll  on,  the  empire  ol  the  Almighty  may 
be  gradually  expanding  in  its  extent,  and  receiving  new  addi¬ 
tions  to  its  glory  and  magnificence. 

Hence  we  may  conclude  that  there  is  no  created  being,  even 
of  the  highest  order  of  intelligences,  that  will  ever  he  aide  to 
survey  the  whole  scene  of  the  universe.  Of  course,  man, 
though  destined  to  immortality,  will  never  acquire  a  complete 
knowledge  of  the  whole  range  of  the  Creator’s  operations, 
even  during  the  endless  existence  which  lies  before  him;  Ibr 
his  faculties,  however  much  expanded  in  that  state,  will  he 
utterly  inadequate  to  grasp  a  scene  so  houndlcsH  and  august. 
It  will  he  a  part  of  his  happiness  that  he  will  never  he  aide  to 
comprehend  the  universe;  for  at  every  period  of  his  future 
existence  he  will  still  hehohl  a  boundless  prospect  stretched 
out  before  him,  with  new  objects  continually  rising  to  view, 
in  the  contemplation  of  which,  innumerable  ages  may  roll 
away  without  the  least  apprehension  of  ever  arriving  at  the 
termination  of  the  scene.  Were  a  superior  intelligence  ever 
to  arrive  at  such  a  point,  from  that  moment  his  happiness 
would  he  diminished,  his  intellectual  powers  would  lose  their 
energy,  his  love  and  adorations  of  the  Supreme  would  wax 
faint  and  languid,  and  he  would  feel  as  ii  nothing  new  and 
transporting  were  to  he  added  to  his  enjoyments  throughout 
all  the  periods  of  his  future  existence.  But  the  immensity  of 
the  universe,  and  the  boundless  nature  of  the  dominions  of 
the  King  Eternal,”  will  for  ever  prevent  any  Hindi  oiler  Is 
from  being  produced  in  the  ease  of  all  virtuous  and  holy 
intelligences. 

Besides  the  numerous  bodies  to  which  wo  have  above 
alluded,  there  are  several  other  objects  which  require  to  he 
contemplated,  in  order  to  amplify  our  views  of  the  visible 
universe.  Those  nebulous  specks  in  the  remote  regions  of 
the  heavens  termed  planetary  nebula-  have  never  yet  been 
resolved  into  stars,  and  are  in  all  probability  bodies  of  a  dif- 


288  MULTITUDES  OF  BEINGS  IN  THE  UNIVERSE. 


ferent  nature  from  the  Milky  Way  and  other  sidereal  systems. 
Their  magnitude  is  astonishing,  since  some  of  them  would  , 
fill  a  cubical  space  equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  orbit  of  Uranus, 
which  would  contain  24,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000, 
or  twenty-four  thousand  quartilions  of  solid  miles ;  that  is, 
they  are  sixty-eight  thousand  millions  of  times  larger  than  the 
sun.  Such  bodies  present  to  our  view  magnitudes  more  asto¬ 
nishing  than  any  others  to  be  found  within  the  range  of  the 
visible  creation,  and  overwhelm  the  mind  with  wonder  and 
amazement  at  what  can  possibly  be  their  nature  and  destina¬ 
tion.  Several  other  nebulae  are  no  less  wonderful,  such  as 
that  in  the  constellation  of  Orion,  which  even  surpasses  in 
magnitude  the  dimensions  now  stated.  It  has  been  computed 
to  be  2,200,000,000,000,000,000,  or  two  trillions,  two  hun¬ 
dred  thousand  billions  of  times  larger  than  the  sun, — a  mag¬ 
nitude  which  we  can  scarcely  suppose  within  the  power  of 
any  finite  being  to  grasp  or  to  comprehend.  For  what  end 
such  huge  masses  of  matter  were  created  must  remain  a  mys¬ 
tery  to  mortals  so  long  as  they  are  confined  to  this  sublunary 
scene.  Perhaps  they  are  intended  to  give  us  a  glimpse  of  ob¬ 
jects  and  arrangements  in  the  Divine  economy  altogether 
different  from  those  we  perceive  in  the  planetary  system,  and 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  sidereal  heavens.  But  whatever  may 
be  their  ultimate  destination,  we  may  rest  assured  that  they 
serve  a  purpose  in  the  plan  of  the  Divine  administration 
worthy  of  their  magnitude,  and  of  the  perfections  of  him  by 
whom  they  were  created.  They  were  brought  into  existence 
by  the  same  power  which  reared  the  other  parts  of  creation; 
and  as  power  is  always  accompanied  with  wisdom  and  good¬ 
ness,  they  must  have  an  ultimate  reference  to  the  accommoda¬ 
tion  and  happiness  of  rational  beings,  under  an  economy, 
perhaps,  widely  different  from  that  of  the  planetary  and  other 
systems. 

Having  taken  a  cursory  view  of  the  magnitudes  of  the  num¬ 
berless  bodies  scattered  through  the  regions  of  space,  let  us 
now  consider  the  motions  which  are  incessantly  going  for¬ 
ward  in  every  part  of  the  universe;  for  all  the  myriads  of 
globes  and  systems  to  which  we  have  alluded  are  in  rapid 
and  pe-rpetual  motion ;  and  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that 
there  is  a  single  quiescent  body  throughout  the  immensity 
of  creation.  We  have  here  planets  revolving  around  suns, 
planets  revolving  around  planets,  suns  performing  their  revo¬ 
lutions  around  suns,  suns  revolving  around  the  centres  of 
sidereal  systems,  and,  in  all  probability,  every  system  of  crea¬ 
tion  revolving  round  the  centre  and  Grand  Mover  of  the 


MULTITUDES  OF  BEINGS  IN  THE  UNIVERSE.  289 

whole.  The  rate  of  these  motions,  in  every  known  instance, 
is  not  less  than  several  thousands  of  miles  every  hour,  and  in 
many  instances,  thousands  of  miles  in  a  minute.  The  mo¬ 
tions  which  are  found  among  the  planetary  globes  appear,  at 
first  view,  altogether  astonishing,  and  almost  to  exceed  belief, 
when  we  consider  the  enormous  size  of  some  of  these  bodies. 
That  a  globe  a  thousand  times  larger  than  our  world  should 
fly  at  the  rate  of  thirty  thousand  miles  an  hour,  and  carry 
along  with  it  a  retinue  of  other  mighty  globes  in  its  swift  ca¬ 
reer,  is  an  object  that  may  well  strike  us  with  wonder  and 
amazement.  But  the  fixed  stars — though  to  a  common  ob¬ 
server  they  appear  exactly  in  the  same  positions  with  regard 
to  each  other — are  found,  in  some  instances,  to  be  carried 
forward  with  motions  far  more  rapid  than  even  the  bodies  of 
the  planetary  system,  though  their  magnitude  is  immensely 
superior.  We  have  already  seen  that  the  star  61  Cygni, 
whose  apparent  motion  is  five  seconds  annually,  and  conse¬ 
quently  imperceptible  to  a  common  observer,  yet  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  at  which  the  star  is  known  to  be  placed,  this  motion  is 
equivalent  to  one  thousand  five  hundred  and  fifty -two  mil¬ 
lions  of  miles  in  a  year ;  four  millions,  two  hundred  and  fifty- 
two  thousand  miles  a  day,  and  one  hundred  and  seventy-seven 
thousand  miles  an  hour.  Other  stars  are  found  to  move  with 
velocities  nearly  similar,  as  ^  Cassiopeia,  which  moves  above 
three  millions  of  miles  a  day,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  two 
thousand  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  every  minute.  These 
are  motions  altogether  incomprehensible  by  human  beings, 
especially  when  we  take  into  consideration  the  enormous 
magnitude  of  the  stars,  some  of  which  may  be  a  thousand 
times  larger  than  all  the  planets  and  comets  belonging  to  our 
system.  They  display  the  amazing  and  uncontrollable  ener¬ 
gies  of  Omnipotence,  and  afford  a  distinct  source  of  admi¬ 
ration  and  astonishment  in  addition  to  all  the  other  wonders 
of  the  universe.  If,  then,  we  would  endeavour  to  attain  a 
comprehensive  idea  of  the  motions  going  forward  throughout 
the  spaces  of  immensity,  we  must  not  only  eonceive  of  planets 
revolving  around  luminous  centres,  but  of  suns  revolving 
around  suns, — of  suns  and  systems  revolving  around  the  cen¬ 
tres  of  the  nebulae  to  which  they  respectively  belong, — of  all 
the  systems  and  nebulae  of  the  universe  revolving  in  immense 
circumferences  around  the  throne  of  the  Eternal,  the  great 
centre  of  all  worlds  and  beings, — of  each  sun,  and  planet,  and 
system,  notwithstanding,  pursuing  a  course  of  its  own  in  dif¬ 
ferent  directions,  and  in  numerous  instances  acted  upon  by 
different  forces, — in  short,  of  the  ten  thousand  times  ten  tliou- 
Vol.  VIII.  25 


290  MULTITUDES  OP  BEINGS  IN  THE  UNIVERSE. 


sands  of  luminous  and  opaque  globes,  of  every  rank  and  order, 
within  the  circuit  of  creation, — all  performing  their  rapid  but 
harmonious  motions  throughout  every  region  of  space,  and 
without  intermission,  in  obedience  to  the  laws  of  their  Creator. 

Again,  we  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  attained  a  compre¬ 
hensive  conception  of  the  universe,  without  taking  into  ac¬ 
count  the  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings  with  which  it  is 
replenished.  We  ought  never  to  consider  the  numerous  orbs 
revolving  throughout  infinite  space  as  mere  masses  of  rude 
matter,  arranged  into  systems  merely  to  give  a  display  of 
Almighty  Power,  but  as  means  for  accomplishing  a  higher 
and  nobler  end, — the  diffusion  of  happiness  among  countless 
orders  of  intelligent  existence.  And  as  this  idea  must  neces¬ 
sarily  be  admitted,  what  a  countless  multitude  of  percipient 
beings  must  people  the  amplitudes  of  creation !  On  our  globe 
there  are  supported  at  least  800  millions  of  human  beings ; 
but  it  is  capable  of  supporting  twenty  times  that  number,  or 
sixteen  thousand  millions,  if  all  its  desolate  wastes  were  culti¬ 
vated  and  peopled.  Besides  man,  there  are  numerous  orders 
of  other  sensitive  beings  :  there  are  at  least  500  species  of 
quadrupeds,  4000  species  of  birds,  3000  species  of  fishes,  700 
species  of  reptiles,  50,000  species  of  insects,  besides  thousands 
which  the  microscope  alone  can  enable  us  to  perceive — at 
least  sixty  thousand  species  in  all.  If  every  species  contain 
about  500  millions  of  individuals,  then  there  will  be  no  less 
than  30,000,000,000,000,  or  thirty  billions  of  individuals 
belonging  to  all  the  different  classes  of  sensitive  existence  on 
the  surface  of  our  globe. 

If  this  earth,  then,  which  ranks  among  the  smaller  globes 
of  our  system,  contain  such  an  immense  number  of  living 
beings,  what  must  be  the  number  of  sentient  and  intellectual 
existence  in  all  the  worlds  to  which  we  have  alluded  !  We 
assumed,  on  certain  data,  that  2,019,100,000,000,  or  two  bil¬ 
lions  of  worlds,  may  exist  within  the  bounds  of  the  visible 
universe ;  and,  although  no  more  beings  should  exist  in  each 
world,  at  an  average,  than  on  our  globe,  there  would  be  the 
following  number  of  living  inhabitants  in  these  worlds, 
60,573,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ;  that  is,  sixty  quarti- 
lions,  five  hundred  and  seventy-three  thousand  trillions,  a 
number  which  transcends  human  conception.  Among  such 
a  number  of  beings,  what  a  variety  of  orders  may  exist,  from 
the  archangel  and  the  seraph  to  the  worm  and  the  micro¬ 
scopic  animalculum !  What  a  diversity  of  ranks  in  the  intel¬ 
lectual  scale,  from  the  point  of  the  human  faculties  to  the 
highest  order  of  created  beings,  may  be  found  throughout  this 


UNIVERSE  A  MANIFESTATION  OF  THE  DIVINITY.  291 

immensity  of  existence  !  Some,  perhaps,  invested  with  facul¬ 
ties  as  far  surpassing  those  of  man  as  man  surpasses  in  intel¬ 
lectual  energy  the  worms  of  the  dust,  and  still  approximating 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  Deity.  What  a  variety  may  exist 
among  them  in  the  form,  organization,  senses,  and  the  move¬ 
ments  of  their  corporeal  vehicles !  What  a  wonderful  and 
interesting  scene  would  their  history  disclose,  were  the  whole 
series  of  events  in  the  Divine  administration  towards  them  laid 
open  to  our  view  ! — the  different  periods  in  duration  at  which 
they  were  brought  into  existence ;  the  special  laws  of  social 
and  moral  order  peculiar  to  each  class  of  intelligences ;  the 
modes  of  improving  the  intellect,  and  the  progress  they  have 
made  in  universal  knowledge  ;  the  scenes  of  glory  or  of  terror 
through  which  any  particular  classes  of  beings  might  have 
passed  ;  the  changes  and  revolutions  that  may  await  them ; 
and  the  final  destination  to  which  they  are  appointed.  These 
and  numerous  other  circumstances  connected  with  the  moral 
and  intellectual  universe  open  to  view  a  source  of  knowledge, 
and  a  subject  of  sublime  investigation,  which  superior  intel¬ 
lects  might  prosecute  without  intermission,  with  increasing 
admiration  and  rapture,  and  never  arrive  at  the  termination  of 
their  pursuits  during  all  the  periods  of  an  endless  existence. 

Such  is  a  summary  view  of  the  universe,  in  so  far  as  its 
scenes  lie  open  to  our  knowledge  and  investigation.  The 
idea  it  presents  is  altogether  overpowering  to  the  human 
faculties,  but  it  is  nothing  else  than  what  we  should  naturally 
expect,  when  we  consider  that  the  Being  who  formed  it  is  self- 
existent  and  eternal ;  possessed  of  infinite  wisdom,  almighty 
power,  and  boundless  goodness  ;  and  fills  the  infinity  of  space 
with  his  presence.  It  is  like  himself,  boundless,  and  incom¬ 
prehensible  by  finite  minds ;  but  exhibits  to  every  order  of 
intelligent  beings  a  sensible  display  of  u  His  Eternal  Power 
and  Godhead.”  Without  the  existence  of  such  an  universe, 
the  infinite  attributes  of  the  Almighty  could  not  be  fully  re¬ 
cognised  and  appreciated  by  his  intelligent  offspring.  But 
here  we  behold,  as  in  a  mirror,  the  invisible  perfections  of 
the  Divinity,  u  whom  no  man  hath  seen  or  can  see,”  adum¬ 
brated,  as  it  were,  and  rendered  visible,  in  every  part  of  crea¬ 
tion,  to  the  eyes  of  unnumbered  intelligences ;  for  there  is  no 
point  of  space  in  which  a  rational  being  could  be  placed,  in 
which  he  would  not  find  himself  surrounded  with  sensible 
evidences  and  displays  of  the  operations  of  an  all-wise,  art 
all-powerful,  and  incomprehensible  Deity.  He  has  not  left 
himself  without  a  witness”  to  his  existence,  and  his  incessant 
energies,  in  any  parts  of  his  dominions,  or  to  any  order  of 


29 2  UNIVERSE  A  MANIFESTATION  OF  THE  DEITY. 


his  creatures,  wherever  existing.  u  If  we  should  ascend  to 
heaven,  he  is  there.”  If  we  should  descend  to  the  lower 
regions,  he  is  there  also  to  be  seen  in  his  operations. — • 
If  we  take  the  wings  of  the  morning,”  and  fly  along  with 
the  sun  from  east  to  west,  and  continue  our  course  with¬ 
out  intermission  through  regions  of  space  invisible  to  mortal 
eye,  u  even  there  his  hand  would  lead  us,  and  his  right  hand 
uphold  us.”  ^  Darkness”  unfolds  the  grandeur  of  his  opera¬ 
tions  and  the  glories  of  his  nature,  as  well  as  the  “  light”  of 
the  orb  of  day.  Though,  on  the  wings  of  a  seraph  we  could 
fly  in  every  direction  through  boundless  space,  we  should 
every  where  find  ourselves  encompassed  with  his  immensity, 
and  with  the  manifestations  of  his  presence  and  agency.  Of 
such  a  Being,  and  of  the  universe  he  has  formed,  we  may 
exclaim  in  the  language  of  an  inspired  writer — w  O  the  depth 
of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  of  the  knowledge  of 
God !  How  unsearchable  are  his  operations,  and  his  ways 
past  finding  out !” 

Of  this  universe  we  can  only  form  an  approximate  idea  by 
comparing  one  small  portion  of  it  with  another,  and  by  allow¬ 
ing  the  mind  to  dwell  for  a  considerable  time  on  every  scene 
we  contemplate.  We  must  first  endeavour  to  acquire  a  com¬ 
prehensive  conception  of  the  magnitude  of  the  globe  on  which 
we  dwell,  and  the  numerous  diversity  of  objects  it  contains; 
we  must  next  stretch  our  view  to  some  of  the  planetary 
globes,  which  are  a  thousand  times  greater  in  magnitude ;  and 
to  such  an  orb  as  the  sun,  which  fills  a  space  thirteen  hundred 
thousand  times  more  expansive.  Ranging  through  the  whole 
of  the  planetary  system,  we  must  fix  our  attention  on  every 
particular  scene  and  object,  imagine  ourselves  traversing  the 
hills,  and  plains,  and  immense  regions  of  Jupiter,  and  survey¬ 
ing  the  expansive  rings  of  Saturn  in  all  their  vast  dimensions 
and  rapid  motions,  till  we  have  obtained  the  most  ample  idea 
which  the  mind  can  possibly  grasp  of  the  extent  and  grandeur 
of  the  planetary  system.  Leaving  this  vast  system,  and  pro¬ 
ceeding  through  boundless  space  till  all  its  planets  have  en¬ 
tirely  disappeared,  and  its  sun  has  dwindled  to  the  size  of  a 
small  twinkling  star,  we  must  next  survey  the  thousand  stars 
that  deck  the  visible  firmament,  every  one  of  which  must  be 
considered  as  a  sun,  accompanied  with  a  system  of  planets 
no  less  spacious  and  august  than  ours.  Continuing  our  course 
through  depths  of  space  immeasurable  by  human  art,  we  must 
penetrate  into  the  centre  of  the  Milky  Way,  where  we  are 
surrounded  by  suns,  not  only  in  thousands,  but  in  millions. 
Here  the  imagination  must  be  left  for  a  length  of  time,  to  ex~ 


SUMMARY  VIEW  OF  THE  UNIVERSE. 


29 


patiate  in  this  amazing  and  magnificent  scene,  and  try  if  it  can 
form  any  faint  idea  of  twenty  millions  of  suns,  surrounded 
with  a  thousand  millions  of  planets.  Suppose  one  of  these 
bodies  to  pass  before  the  eye  or  the  imagination  every  minute, 
it  would  require  1900  years  before  the  whole  could  pass  in  re¬ 
view,  and  each  produce  a  distinct  impression  as  a  separate  object. 

In  a  scene  like  this,  the  boldest  imagination  is  overpowered 
and  bewildered,  amidst  number  and  magnitude,  and  feels  ut¬ 
terly  incompetent  to  grasp  the  ten  thousandth  part  of  the  over¬ 
whelming  idea  presented  before  it.  Winging  our  flight  from 
the  Milky  Way,  over  unknown  and  immeasurable  regions, 
regions  where  infinitude  appears  opening  upon  us  in  awful 
grandeur,  we  approach  some  of  those  immense  starry  clusters 
called  Nebulae,  every  one  of  which  may  be  considered  as 
another  milky  way,  with  its  ten  thousands  and  millions  of 
suns.  Here  the  imagination  must  make  a  solemn  pause,  and 
take  a  wider  stretch,  and  summon  up  all  its  powers,  and 
force,  and  vigour;  for  here  we  have  not  merely  one  milky 
way,  with  its  millions  of  stars,  to  contemplate,  but  thousands. 
If  the  immense  splendour  and  amplitude  of  one  milky  way 
overwhelms  us  with  amazement,  and  with  an  emotion  almost 
approaching  to  terror,  what  an  overpowering  effect  should 
two  thousand  of  such  scenes,  which  have  already  been  dis¬ 
covered,  produce  upon  minds  so  feeble  and  limited  as  ours  l 
Such  a  scene  not  only  displays  to  us,  beyond  every  other, 
the  incomprehensible  energies  of  Omnipotence ,  but  seems  to 
intimate  that  there  are  created  beings  existing  in  the  universe, 
endowed  with  powers  of  intelligence  capable  of  forming  a 
much  more  approximate  idea  of  such  objects  than  beings 
such  as  man,  who  may  be  considered  as  standing  near  the 
lowest  point  of  the  scale  of  intellectual  existence.  These 
w  thrones  and  dominions,  principalities  and  powers  of  Hea¬ 
ven,”  may  be  able  to  form  a  comprehensive  conception  of 
such  a  scene  as  the  Milky  Way,  which  baffles  the  utmost 
efforts  of  the  human  faculties. 

Soaring  beyond  all  these  objects,  we  behold,  as  it  were,  a  new 
universe  in  the  immense  magnitude  of  the  planetary  and  other 
nebulae,  where  separate  stars  have  never  been  perceived ;  and 
besides  all  these,  there  may  be  thousands  and  ten  thousands, 
and  millions  of  opaque  globes  of  prodigious  size,  existing 
throughout  every  region  of  the  universe,  and  even  in  that  por¬ 
tion  of  it  which  is  within  the  limits  of  our  inspection,  the 
faintness  of  whose  light  prevents  it  from  ever  reaching  our 
eyes.  But,  far  beyond  all  such  objects  as  those  we  have  been 
contemplating,  a  boundless  region  exists,  of  which  no  human 

25* 


294  CREATION  A  PROOF  OF  DIVINE  EXISTENCE. 


eye  has  yet  caught  a  glimpse,  and  which  no  finite  intelligence 
has  ever  explored.  What  scenes  of  power,  of  goodness,  of 
grandeur,  and  magnificence,  may  be  displayed  within  this  un¬ 
approachable  and  infinite  expanse,  neither  men  nor  angels  can 
describe,  nor  form  the  most  rude  conception.  But  we  may 
rest  assured  that  it  is  not  an  empty  void ;  but  displays  the  at¬ 
tributes  of  the  Deity  in  a  manner  no  less  admirable  and  glo¬ 
rious,  and  perhaps  much  more  so,  than  all  the  scenes  of  crea¬ 
tion  within  the  range  of  our  vision.  Here,  undoubtedly,  is 
that  splendid  region  so  frequently  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures, 
designated  by  the  emphatic  name,  a  The  Heaven  of  Hea¬ 
vens,”  evidently  importing  that  it  is  the  most  glorious  and 
magnificent  department  of  creation.  Countless  myriads  of 
beings,  standing  at  the  highest  point  of  the  scale  of  intellect, 
and  invested  with  faculties  of  which  we  have  no  conception, 
must  inhabit  those  regions ;  for  we  are  positively  informed 
that  u  hosts  of  intelligent  beings  reside  in  such  abodes,  and  that 
w  these  hosts  of  the  heaven  of  heavens  worship  God.”  But 
here  our  contemplations  must  terminate.  Here  imagination 
must  drop  its  wing,  since  it  can  penetrate  no  further  into  the 
dominions  of  Him  who  sits  on  the  throne  •  of  immensity. 
Overwhelmed  with  a  view  of  the  magnificence  of  the  universe, 
and  of  the  perfections  of  its  Almighty  Author,  we  can  only 
fall  prostrate  in  deep  humility  and  adoration,  and  exclaim, 
w  Great  and  marvellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty ! 
Thou  art  worthy  to  receive  glory,  and  honour,  and  power ; 
for  thou  hast  created  all  worlds,  and  for  thy  pleasure  they  are 
and  were  created.” 

I  shall  conclude  this  subject  with  the  following  remarks: — 

1.  All  the  vast  systems  to  which  we  have  alluded  are  the 
workmanship  of  an  Infinite  and  Eternal  Being,  and  display 
the  grandeur  of  his  perfections.  It  is  impossible  that  such  an 
amazing  universe,  arranged  with  such  exquisite  order,  and  all 
the  bodies  it  contains  moving  with  such  regular  and  rapid 
motions,  could  have  formed  itself,  or  been  produced  by  the 
fortuitous  concourse  of  atoms.  The  very  surmise  that  such  a 
thing  was  possible  is  one  of  the  wildest  hallucinations  that 
ever  entered  the  human  mind.  It  is  a  first  principle  connected 
with  the  constitution  of  every  intellectual  nature,  and  without 
the  admission  of  which  there  can  be  no  reasoning,  that  there 
is  a  connexion  between  cause  and  effect,”  and  that  “  every 
effect  must  have  a  corresponding  cause  adequate  to  its  produc¬ 
tion.”  The  universe  is  an  effect ,  the  most  sublime  and  glori¬ 
ous  which  the  human  mind  can  contemplate,  and  the  natural 
and  necessary  conclusion  which  it  almost  instinctively  draws 


CREATION  A  PROOF  OF  DIVINE  EXISTENCE. 

is,  that  it  is  the  production  of  an  Eternal,  Intelligent,  and  Al¬ 
mighty  Being.  This  is  a  conclusion  which  has  been  deduced 
by  men  of  all  nations,  and  in  every  period  of  the  world. 
44  There  is  no  nation  or  people,”  says  Cicero,  44  so  barbarous 
and  ignorant  as  not  to  acknowledge  a  powerful  and  Supreme 
Divinity.” 

It  is  as  natural  for  the  human  understanding,  in  its  original 
and  unbiassed  state,  when  contemplating  the  frame  of  the  uni¬ 
verse,  to  infer  the  existence  of  a  Deity,  as  it  is  the  property 
of  the  eye  to  distinguish  light  and  colours,  and  of  the  ear  to 
distinguish  sounds.  The  principle  from  which  this  conclusion 
is  deduced  is  exactly  the  same  as  that  by  which,  from  the  con¬ 
templation  of  a  building,  we  infer  a  builder,  and  from  the  ele 
gance  and  utility  of  every  part  of  the  structure,  we  conclude 
that  he  was  a  wise  and  skilful  architect ;  or  that  by  which, 
from  an  inspection  of  a  clock  or  watch,  or  any  other  piece  of 
useful  machinery,  we  infer  not  only  the  existence,  but  the 
qualities  and  attributes,  of  the  contriver  and  artificer.  The 
man  who  is  incapable  of  at  once  deducing  such  conclusions 
ought  to  be  regarded  as  destitute  of  the  reasoning  faculty ; 
and  if  we  thus  necessarily  infer  the  cause  from  the  effect  in 
the  case  of  human  art,  can  we  for  a  moment  hesitate  to  ascribe 
the  production  of  this  amazing  universe  which  surrounds  us, 
to  a  Being  of  infinite  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  power,  adequate 
to  bring  into  existence  such  an  immense  and  wonderful  ma¬ 
chine,  and  to  preserve  it  in  harmony,  from  age  to  age,  amidst 
all  its  diversified  and  complicated  movements  ?  That  ever  a 
doubt  was  entertained  on  this  subject  is  a  plain  proof  that  man 
has  lost,  in  part,  that  light  of  reason  and  intelligence  with 
which  he  was  originally  endued,  or  that  he  is  sometimes 
urged  on  by  depraved  passions  and  a  pride  of  singularity  to 
utter  sentiments  which  he  does  not  sincerely  believe.  As 
Cicero  long  ago  declared — 44  He  who  thinks  that  the  admirable 
order  of  the  celestial  orbs,  and  their  constancy  and  regularity, 
on  which  the  conservation  and  good  of  all  things  depend,  to 
be  void  of  a  mind  that  governs  them,  he  himself  deserves  to  be 
accounted  void  of  a  mind.”  It  is  44  the  fool ”  alone,  in  the 
strictest  sense*  of  the  word,  whatever  may  be  his  pretended 
learning,  who  dares  to  declare  44  there  is  no  God.” 

And  as  the  universe  demonstrates  the  existence ,  so  it  dis¬ 
plays  the  attributes  of  the  Eternal.  The  manifestation  of  him¬ 
self  to  numberless  orders  of  intelligent  beings  must  have  been 
the  great  end  intended  in  bringing  the  universe  into  existence. 
This  manifestation  is  made  chiefly  in  actions — in  actions 
which  display  greatness,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  beyond  all 


296 


TIIE  UNIVERSE  DISPLAYS  THE 


bounds.  His  greatness  appears  from  the  immensity  of  power 
which  the  universe  exhibits.  The  power  necessary  to  move 
a  single  planet  in  its  course  far  transcends  human  conception. 
What,  then,  must  be  the  energy  and  extent  of  that  power 
which  set  in  motion  and  still  upholds  all  the  planets,  worlds, 
and  systems  dispersed  throughout  the  spaces  of  infinitude ! 
The  highest  created  intelligence  must  be  utterly  overwhelmed 
and  confounded  when  it  attempts  to  contemplate  or  to  grasp 
an  idea  of  omnipotence.  His  knowledge,  wisdom,  and  un¬ 
ceasing  agency  are  no  less  conspicuous  in  the  arrangement 
and  direction  of  every  thing  that  exists  in  heaven  and  on  earth. 
As  his  presence  pervades  all  space,  so  his  agency  is  displayed 
in  the  minutest  movement  of  every  part  of  the  vast  whole. 
This  great  and  incomprehensible  Being  moves  every  atom, 
expands  every  leaf  of  the  forest,  decks  every  flower,  conveys 
the  sap  through  the  ramifications  of  every  tree,  conducts  every 
particle  of  vapour  to  its  appointed  place,  directs  every  ray  of 
light  from  the  sun  and  stars,  every  breath  of  wind,  every  flash 
of  lightning,  every  movement  of  the  meanest  worm,  and  every 
motion  of  the  smallest  microscopic  animalculum  ;  while  at  the 
same  time  he  supports  the  planets  in  their  courses,  guides  the 
comet  in  its  eccentric  career,  regulates  the  movements  of  mil¬ 
lions  of  resplendent  systems,  and  presides  in  sovereign  au¬ 
thority  over  unnumbered  hosts  of  intelligent  existence  ;  direct¬ 
ing  all  the  mysterious  powers  of  knowledge,  virtue,  and  moral 
action  to  subserve  the  purposes  of  his  will,  and  accomplish 
the  ends  of  his  moral  government.  In  every  department  of 
this  universe,  likewise,  his  goodness  is  displayed  to  unnum¬ 
bered  orders  of  beings,  sentient  and  intellectual;  for  all  the 
powers  of  intelligence  and  action  possessed  by  every  creature 
in  heaven  and  on  earth,  from  the  archangel  to  the  worm, 
and  all  the  happiness  they  now  or  ever  will  enjoy,  are  derived 
from  him  as  the  uncreated  source  of  all  felicity. 

Under  this  glorious  and  stupendous  Being  we  live  and 
move;  our  comforts  and  enjoyments,  while  passing  through 
this  transitory  scene,  are  wholly  in  his  hands,  and  all  our 
prospects  of  enjoyment  beyond  the  range  of  our  earthly 
career  are  dependent  on  his  mercy  and  favour.  His  omnipo¬ 
tent  arm  supports  us  every  moment ;  every  breath  we  draw, 
every  pulse  that  beats  within  us,  every  muscular  power  we 
exert,  every  sound  that  strikes  our  ears,  and  every  ray  of  light 
that  enters  our  eye-balls,  is  dependent  on  his  sovereign  will. 
All  that  we  hope  for  beyond  the  limits  of  time  and  throughout 
the  revolutions  of  eternity  depends  upon  his  power,  his  wis¬ 
dom,  his  benevolence  and  his  promises.  Were  he  to  withhold 


ATTRIBUTES  OP  DEITY. 


297 


the  powers  and  agencies  under  which  we  now  live  and  act, 
we  could  neither  think  nor  speak,  hear  nor  see,  feel  nor  move; 
the  whole  assemblage  of  living  beings  in  our  world  would  be 
changed  into  immoveable  statues,  and  this  earth  transformed 
into  a  barren  waste  and  an  eternal  solitude.  To  the  service 
of  this  glorious  Being  all  the  powers  and  faculties  with  which 
he  has  endowed  us  ought  to  be  unreservedly  consecrated.  As 
his  highest  glory  and  blessedness  consist  in  bestowing  benefits 
on  his  intelligent  offspring,  so  we  ought  to  be  imitators  of 
him  in  his  boundless  beneficence,  by  endeavouring  to  commu¬ 
nicate  happiness  to  all  around  us.  uTo  do  good,  and  to  com¬ 
municate,  forget  not;  for  with  such  sacrifices  God  is  well 
pleased.”  To  him,  as  the  44  Father  of  our  spirits  and  the 
former  of  our  bodies,”  is  due  the  highest  degree  of  our  love  and 
gratitude ;  on  him  we  ought  to  rely  for  every  blessing,  and 
humbly  resign  ourselves  to  his  disposal  under  every  event ; 
for  44  all  things  are  of  God,”  and  all  are  conducted  with  su¬ 
preme  and  unerring  wisdom  and  goodness  to  an  end  immortal 
and  divine. 

2.  The  immensity  and  magnificence  of  the  universe  and 
the  attributes  of  Deity  it  displays  are  considerations  which 
ought  to  be  taken  into  account  in  all  our  views  of  religion. 
There  is  a  class  of  men  who,  in  prosecuting  scientific  pur¬ 
suits,  wish  to  discard  every  thing  that  has  a  bearing  on  reli¬ 
gion  when  deduced  from  the  investigations  of  science,  and 
can  scarcely  refrain  from  *  sneer,  when  the  arrangements  in 
the  economy  of  nature  are  traced  to  the  agency  of  their  A1J- 
wise  and  Omnipotent  Creator;  as  if  the  objects  which  science 
professes  to  investigate  had  no  relation  to  the  views  we  ought 
to  entertain  of  the  Divinity,  and  ought  never  to  be  traced  to 
their  great  first  cause.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  many 
professed  religionists  who,  from  mistaken  notions  of  piety, 
would  set  aside  the  study  of  the  works  of  God,  as  having  no 
connexion  whatever  with  the  exercises  of  piety  and  the  busi¬ 
ness  of  religion,  and  as  even  injurious  to  their  interests.  Both 
these  classes  of  men  verge  towards  extremes  which  are 
equally  inconsistent  and  dangerous.  The  amazing  fact,  that 
creation  consists  of  a  countless  number  of  magnificent  systems 
and  worlds  beyond  the  comprehension  of  finite  minds,  ought 
not  thus  to  be  recklessly  set  aside  in  our  views  of  God  and 
of  religion  ;  for  they  are  all  the  workmanship  of  one  Being, 
and  they  are  connected  together  as  parts  of  one  grand  system, 
of  which  the  God  we  profess  to  worship  is  the  supreme  and 
universal  governor.  They  present  to  the  view  of  all  intelli¬ 
gences  the  most  glorious  displays  of  his  character  and  perfec*® 


298 


RELIGION  AND  SCIENCE  CONNECTED 


tions,  and  consequently  demand  from  us  a  corresponding  sen¬ 
timent  of  admiration  and  reverence,  and  a  corresponding  tribute 
of  homage  and  adoration.  Such  enlarged  prospects  of  the 
universe  are  therefore  available  for  the  loftiest  purposes  of  re¬ 
ligion  and  piety,  and  ought  to  enter  as  an  element  into  all  our 
views  of  the  administration  of  the  Almighty,  and  of  that  wor¬ 
ship  and  obedience  he  requires  from  his  rational  offspring, 
unless  we  would  be  contented  to  render  him  a  degree  of  ho¬ 
mage  far  inferior  to  that  which  the  manifestation  of  his  attri¬ 
butes  demands. 

God  is  known  only  by  the  manifestations  which  he  makes 
of  his  character  and  perfections.  The  highest  created  intelli¬ 
gences  can  know  nothing  more  of  the  Divinity  than  what  is 
derived  from  the  boundless  universe  he  has  presented  to  their 
view,  the  dispensations  of  his  providence  to  certain  orders  of 
beings,  and  the  special  revelations  he  may  occasionally 
vouchsafe,  on  certain  emergencies,  to  particular  worlds.  Had 
man  continued  in  primeval  innocence,  the  contemplation  of 
the  vast  creation  around  him,  with  all  its  diversified  wonders 
and  beneficent  tendencies,  would  have  led  him  to  form  cor¬ 
rect  views  of  the  attributes  of  his  Almighty  Maker,  and  of  the 
moral  laws  by  which  his  conduct  should  be  regulated  :  but  it 
does  not  follow,  that  because  the  study  of  nature  is  now  of 
itself  an  insufficient  guide  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Creator  and 
the  enjoyment  of  eternal  felicity,  such  studies  are  either  to  be 
thrown  aside,  or  considered  as  of  no  importance  in  a  religious 
point  of  view.  To  overlook  the  astonishing  scene  of  the 
universe,  or  to  view  it  with  indifference,  is  virtually  to  “  dis¬ 
regard  the  works  of  Jehovah,  and  to  refuse  to  consider  the 
operations  of  his  hands.”  It  is  a  violation  of  Christian  duty, 
and  implies  a  reflection  on  the  character  of  the  Deity,  for  any 
one  to  imagine  that  he  has  nothing  to  do  with  God  considered 
as  manifested  in  the  immensity  of  his  works ;  for  his  word  is 
pointed  and  explicit  in  directing  the  mind  to  such  contempla¬ 
tions.  “  Hearken  unto  this  ;  stand  still,  and  consider  the 
wonderful  works  of  God.”  “Lift  up  thine  eyes  on  high,  and 
behold  who  hath  created  these  orbs.”  “  Remember  that  thou 
magnify  his  works  which  men  behold.”  “Great  and  mar¬ 
vellous  are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty  !  Thy  saints  shall 
speak  of  the  glory  of  thy  kingdom  and  talk  of  thy  power,  to 
make  known  to  the  sons  of  men  thy  mighty  operations  and 
the  glorious  majesty  of  thy  kingdom.” 

3.  The  Christian  revelation,  throughout  all  its  departments, 
is  not  only  consistent  with  the  views  we  have  taken  of  the 
universe,  but  affords  direct  evidence  of  the  magnificence  of 


ON  COMETS. 


299 


creation,  and  of  the  myriads  of  beings  with  which  it  is  peo¬ 
pled.  Of  this  position  we  have  exhibited  some  proofs  in  the 
remarks  and  illustrations  contained  in  Chapter  XVII.,  which 
shew  at  the  same  time  the  harmony  which  subsists  between 
the  discoveries  of  revelation  and  the  discoveries  which  have 
been  made  in  the  system  of  nature.  There  is  no  other  sys¬ 
tem  of  religion  or  pretended  revelation  that  was  ever  propa¬ 
gated  in  the  world  to  which  such  a  characteristic  belongs.  If 
we  examine  the  Mahomedan  Koran,  the  Shasters  of  Bramah, 
the  system  of  Confucius,  the  mythology  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  every  other  Pagan  code  of  religion,  we  shall  find 
interspersed  throughout  the  whole  of  them  numerous  senti¬ 
ments,  opinions,  and  pretended  facts  at  utter  variance  with  the 
true  system  of  nature,  and  to  what  are  known  to  be  the  esta¬ 
blished  laws  of  the  universe.  This  is  strikingly  exemplified 
in  the  extravagant  stories  and  descriptions  contained  in  the 
pretended  revelations  of  Mahomet,  and  the  absurd  notions 
respecting  the  creation  contained  in  the  sacred  books  of  the 
Hindoos,  which  assert  that  the  universe  consists  of  seven 
heavens  and  seven  worlds,  which  are  all  at  a  future  period  to 
be  absorbed  into  God ;  with  many  other  absurdities.  In 
opposition  to  all  such  foolish  and  absurd  opinions,  the  in¬ 
spired  writings,  when  properly  understood,  and  rationally 
interpreted  according  to  the  rules  of  just  criticism,  are  uni¬ 
formly  found  to  be  perfectly  consistent  with  the  discoveries 
of  science,  and  the  facts  which  are  found  to  exist  in  the  sys¬ 
tem  of  the  universe ;  and  this  correspondence  and  harmony 
ought  to  be  considered  as  a  strong  presumptive  evidence  that 
the  revelations  of  Scripture  and  the  scenes  of  the  material 
universe  proceed  from  the  same  All-wise  and  Omnipotent 
Author. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

ON  COMETS. 

As  this  class  of  the  celestial  bodies  forms  a  part  of  the  solar 
system,  it  might  have  been  more  appropriate  to  have  intro¬ 
duced  the  subject  into  our  volume  intitled, w  Celestial  Scenery,” 
which  has  for  its  principal  object  a  description  of  the  bodies 
connected  with  that  system ;  but  as  that  work  swelled  to  a 


300 


tycho’s  observations  on  comets. 


greater  size  than  was  at  first  foreseen,  it  was  judged  expedient 
to  postpone  the  consideration  of  comets  to  the  present  volume. 
As  our  knowledge  of  these  bodies,  however,  is  very  limited, 
and  no  discoveries  have  yet  been  made  which  might  lead  us 
to  form  a  decisive  opinion  of  their  nature  and  destination,  I 
shall  content  myself  with  giving  a  brief  detail  of  some  of  the 
leading  facts  which  have  been  ascertained  respecting  them. 

The  word  comet  literally  signifies  a  hairy  star;  because 
such  bodies  are  generally  accompanied  with  a  nebulosity,  or 
train,  which  has  the  appearance  of  luminous  hair.  The  lumi¬ 
nous  point  near  the  centre  of  a  comet,  which  is  most  brilliant, 
is  called  the  nucleus.  The  haze  or  nebulosity  which  sur¬ 
rounds  the  nucleus  is  called  the  hair,  and  sometimes  the  en¬ 
velope  ;  and  the  nucleus  and  hair  combined  constitute  what  is 
usually  termed  the  head  of  the  comet.  The  luminous  train, 
extending  sometimes  to  a  great  distance  from  the  head,  is  called 
the  tail  of  the  comet.  These  bodies  have  occasionally  ap¬ 
peared  in  the  heavens  in  all  ages.  The  ancients  were  divided 
in  their  opinions  respecting  them ;  some  considering  them  as 
wandering  stars  ;  others,  as  meteors  kindled  in  the  atmosphere 
of  the  earth,  subsisting  for  a  time,  and  then  dissipated ;  and 
others  viewed  them  as  prodigies  indicating  wars,  famines, 
inundations,  or  pestilences.  Aristotle,  who  believed  that  the 
heavens  were  incorruptible  and  unchangeable,  maintained  that 
comets  were  generated  when  they  first  made  their  appearance, 
and  were  destroyed  when  they  ceased  to  be  visible,  and  con¬ 
sequently  that  they  could  not  be  reckoned  to  belong  to  the 
heavenly  bodies,  but  were  only  meteors  or  exhalations  raised 
into  the  upper  regions  of  the  air,  where  they  blazed  for  a 
while,  and  disappeared  when  the  matter  of  which  they  were 
formed  was  consumed.  And  as  the  opinions  of  this  ancient 
sage  had  a  powerful  influence  on  the  philosophers  and  astro¬ 
nomers  of  later  times, — as  his  assertions  were  frequently 
regarded  as  little  short  of  demonstrations, — few  persons  had 
the  boldness  and  independency  of  mind  to  call  in  question 
the  positions  he  maintained  on  any  subject  discussed  in  his 
writings. 

It  was  not  before  the  time  of  the  celebrated  astronomer 
Tycho  Brahe  that  the  nature  of  comets  began  to  be  a  little 
understood,  and  that  they  were  considered  as  moving  in  the 
planetary  regions.  This  astronomer  observed  with  great  dili¬ 
gence  the  famous  comet  which  appeared  in  1577 ;  and,  from 
many  accurate  observations  during  the  time  of  its  appearance, 
found  that  it  had  no  sensible  diurnal  parallax,  and  therefore 
was  not  only  far  above  the  limits  of  our  atmosphere,  but  be- 


THE  COMET  OF  1680. 


301 


yond  the  orbit  of  the  moon  itself.  Its  motions  were  likewise 
particularly  observed  by  Hagecius,  at  Prague,  in  Bohemia,  at 
the  same  time  that  they  were  observed  by  Tycho,  at  Urani- 
burg.  These  two  places  differ  six  degrees  in  latitude,  and  are 
nearly  under  the  same  meridian,  and  both  measured  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  the  comet  from  the  same  star,  which  was  in  the  same 
vertical  circle  with  the  comet ;  yet  both  observers  found  their 
distances  the  same,  and  consequently  they  both  viewed  the 
comet  in  the  same  point  of  the  heavens,  which  could  not  have 
happened  unless  the  comet  had  been  in  a  higher  region  than 
the  moon.  After  Tycho,  Kepler  had  an  opportunity  of 
making  observations  on  the  comets  which  appeared  in  1607 
and  1618,  and  from  all  his  observations  he  deduced  this  con¬ 
clusion,  u  that  comets  move  freely  through  the  planetary 
orbs.”  From  this  period  comets  began  to  be  more  accurately 
observed,  and  to  be  considered  as  constituent  parts  of  the 
solar  system;  and  at  length  the  illustrious  Newton  demon¬ 
strated  that  their  motions  are  performed  in  long  ellipses,  hav¬ 
ing  the  sun  in  one  of  their  foci. 

Before  proceeding  to  inquire  into  the  nature  and  physi¬ 
cal  constitution  of  these  bodies,  I  shall  present  the  reader 
with 


appeared  in  modern  times. 


One  of  the  most  remarkable  comets  which  have  appeared 
in  modern  times  is  that  which  made  its  appearance  towards 
the  close  of  the  year  1680,  and  which  was  particularly  ob¬ 
served  by  most  of  the  astronomers  of  Europe.  This  comet, 
according  to  the  accounts  given  by  the  astronomers  of  that 
period,  appeared  to  descend  from  the  distant  regions  of  space 
with  a  prodigious  velocity,  almost  perpendicular  to  the  sun; 
and  ascended  again  in  the  same  manner  from  that  luminary 
with  a  velocity  retarded  as  it  had  before  been  accelerated.  It 
was  observed,  particularly  at  Paris  and  Greenwich,  by  Cassini 
and  Flamstead,  by  whom  it  was  seen  in  the  morning  from  the 
4th  to  the  25th  of  November,  1680,  in  its  descent  towards 
the  sun ;  and  after  it  had  passed  its  perihelion*  in  the  even¬ 
ing,  from  the  12th  of  December  to  the  9th  of  March,  1681. 
The  many  exact  observations  made  on  this  comet  enabled 

*  The  perihelion  is  that  point  in  the  orbit  of  any  planet  or  comet  which 
is  nearest  to  the  sun.  It  is  also  called  the  lower  apsis.  The  aphelion  is 
that  point  in  the  orbit  which  is  furthest  from  the  sun ;  called,  also,  the 
higher  apsis. 


Vol.  VIII. 


26 


302 


THE  COMET  OF  1680. 


Sir  I.  Newton  to  discover  that  so  much  c/  its  orbit  as  could 
be  traced  by  the  motion  of  the  comet,  while  it  was  visible, 
was,  as  to  sense,  a  parabola ,  having  the  sun  in  its  focus,  and 
that  it  was  one  and  the  same  comet  that  was  seen  all  that 
time.  This  comet  was  remarkable  for  its  very  near  approach 
to  the  sun.  At  its  perihelion,  it  was  not  above  a  sixth  part  of 
the  sun’s  diameter  from  its  surface ;  that  is,  about  146,000 
miles  from  the  surface  of  that  luminary,  and  584,000  from 
its  centre.  According  to  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  velocity  of 
this  comet  when  nearest  the  sun  was  880,000  miles  an  hour. 
On  taking  its  perihelion  distance,  as  given  by  M.  Pingre,  Mr. 
Squire  found,  by  two  different  calculations,  that  its  velocity  in 
its  perihelion  was  no  less  than  1,240,000  miles  an  hour ! 
This  velocity  was  so  great  that,  if  continued,  it  would  have 
carried  it  through  124  degrees  in  an  hour ;  but  its  actual 
hourly  motion  during  that  interval,  before  and  after  it  passed 
the  perihelion,  was  81  degrees,  47  minutes.  At  this  period, 
the  diameter  of  the  sun,  as  seen  from  the  comet,  must  have 
subtended  an  angle  of  more  than  a  hundred  degrees,  which 
must  nearly  have  filled  its  whole  hemisphere. 

From  Dr.  Halley’s  determination  of  its  orbit,  it  appears 
that  when  in  its  aphelion,  or  greatest  distance  from  the  sun, 
it  cannot  be  less  than  13,000,000,000,  or  thirteen  thousand 
millions  of  miles  distant  from  that  luminary ;  that  is,  seven 
times  the  distance  of  Uranus.  According  to  the  same  astro¬ 
nomer,  this  comet,  in  passing  through  its  southern  node,  came 
within  the  length  of  the  sun’s  semi-diameter  of  the  orbit  of 
the  earth,  that  is,  within  440,000  miles  *,  and  he  remarks, 
t(*  had  the  earth  been  then  in  that  part  of  its  orbit  nearest  that 
node  of  the  comet,  their  mutual  gravitation  must  have  caused 
a  change  in  the  plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  and  in  the  length 
of  our  year ;  and  if  so  large  a  body  with  so  rapid  a  motion 
were  to  strike  the  earth,  a  thing  by  no  means  impossible,  the 
shock  might  reduce  this  beautiful  frame  to  its  original  chaos.” 
Modern  observations,  however,  render  such  deductions  some¬ 
what  improbable.  The  period  of  this  comet  is  supposed  to 
be  about  575  years.  It  is  conjectured  that  it  is  the  same 
comet  which  appeared  in  1106,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  that 
was  seen  during  the  consulate  of  Lampadius  and  Orestes, 
about  the  year  531,  and  in  the  forty-fourth  year  before  Christ, 
m  which  year  Julius  Cresar  was  murdered.  Its  nucleus  was 
computed  to  be  about  ten  times  as  large  as  the  moon.  Its  tail 
extended  over  a  space  of  seventy  degrees  in  extent. 

This  is  the  comet,  to  the  near  approach  of  which  to  the 
earth  Mr.  Whiston  attributed  the  universal  deluge  in  the  time 


THE  COMET  OF  1682. 


303 


of  Noah.  His  opinion  was,  that  the  earth,  passing  through 
the  atmosphere  of  the  comet,  attracted  from  it  a  great  part  of 
the  water  of  the  flood ;  that  the  nearness  of  the  comet  raised 
a  great  tide  in  the  subterranean  waters ;  that  this  could  not  be 
•done  without  making  Assures  or  cracks  in  the  outer  crust  of 
the  earth ;  that  through  these  fissures  the  subterraneous  wa¬ 
ters  were  forced ;  that  along  with  the  water  much  slime  or 
mud  would  rise,  which,  after  the  subsiding  of  the  water  partly 
into  the  Assures  and  partly  into  the  lower  parts  of  the  earth 
to  form  the  sea,  would  cover  over  to  a  considerable  depth  the 
antediluvian  earth  ;  and  thus  he  accounts  for  trees  and  bones 
of  animals  being  found  at  very  great  depths  in  the  earth. 
The  same  comet,  he  supposed,  when  coming  near  the  earth 
after  being  heated  to  an  immense  degree  in  its  perihelion, 
would  be  the  instrumental  cause  of  that  great  catastrophe,  the 
general  conflagration.  Modern  geological  researches,  how¬ 
ever,  render  all  such  hypotheses  utterly  untenable. 

2.  Another  comet  which  has  obtained  a  certain  degree  of 
celebrity  is  that  which  appeared  in  1682,  and  is  usually  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  name  of  Halley’s  comet.  This  comet  ap¬ 
peared  with  considerable  splendour,  and  exhibited  a  tail  thirty 
degrees  in  length.  On  calculating  its  elements  from  its  peri¬ 
helion  passage,  Dr.  Halley  was  led  to  conclude  that  it  was 
identical  with  the  great  comets  which  appeared  in  1458, 1531, 
and  1607,  whose  elements  he  had  also  ascertained.  The  in¬ 
tervals  between  these  periods  being  about  seventy-Ave  or 
seventy-six  years,  he  was  led  to  conclude  that  this  was  the 
period  of  the  revolution  of  the  comet,  and  ventured  to  predict 
that  it  would  again  return  about  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
1758.  As  this  was  the  Arst  comet  whose  return  had  been 
predicted,  when  the  time  of  its  expected  appearance  ap¬ 
proached,  astronomers  became  anxious  to  ascertain  whether 
the  attraction  of  the  larger  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  might 
not  interfere  with  its  orbitual  motion,  and  prevent  it  from 
arriving  at  its  perihelion  so  soon  as  the  time  predicted.  Clai- 
raut,  an  eminent  French  mathematician,  after  many  intricate 
and  laborious  calculations  in  reference  to  the  subject,  con¬ 
cluded  that  the  attraction  of  Saturn  would  lengthen  the  period 
100  days,  and  the  action  of  Jupiter  518,  making  in  all  618 
days,  by  which  the  expected  return  would  happen  later  than 
if  no  such  influence  had  taken  place ;  so  that  instead  of  the 
period  being  74  years,  323  days,  it  ought  to  be  76  years,  211 
days ;  and  as  the  comet  passed  its  perihelion  on  September 
14,  1682,  it  ought  to  reach  the  same  point  on  April  13,  1759. 
These  calculations  were  read  before  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 


304 


THE  COMET  OP  1744. 


on  the  14th  of  November,  1758  ;  but  Clairaut  gave  notice 
that,  being  pressed  for  time,  he  had  neglected  in  his  calcula¬ 
tions  small  values,  which  collectively  might  amount  to  about 
thirty  days  in  the  seventy-six  years.  These  predictions  were 
accordingly  verified,  for  the  comet  appeared  about  the  end 
of  December,  1758,  and  arrived  at  its  perihelion  on  the  13th 
of  March,  1759,  only  thirty  days  before  the  time  fixed  by  the 
calculations  of  Clairaut,  who,  upon  repeating  the  process  by 
which  he  had  arrived  at  the  result,  reduced  this  error  to  nine¬ 
teen  days.  The  same  comet  again  made  its  appearance,  ac¬ 
cording  to  prediction,  in  1835,  of  which  a  particular  account 
will  be  given  in  the  sequel. 

3.  Another  remarkable  comet  made  its  appearance  in  1744, 
which  excited  a  considerable  degree  of  attention.  It  was  first 
seen  at  Lausanne,  in  Switzerland,  December  13,  1743 ;  from 
that  period  it  increased  in  brightness  and  magnitude  as  it  ap¬ 
proached  nearer  the  sun.  On  the  evening  of  January  23, 
1744,  it  appeared  exceedingly  bright  and  distinct,  and  the 
diameter  of  its  nucleus  was  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Jupiter. 
Its  tail  then  extended  above  16  degrees  from  its  body,  and 
was  supposed  to  be  about  23  millions  of  miles  in  length.  On 
the  11th  of  February,  the  nucleus,  which  had  before  been 
always  round,  appeared  oblong  in  the  direction  of  the  tail, 
and  seemed  divided  into  two  parts  by  a  black  stroke  in  the 
middle.  One  of  the  parts  had  a  sort  of  beard,  brighter  than 
the  tail;  this  beard  was  surrounded  by  two  unequal  dark 
strokes,  that  separated  the  beard  from  the  hair  of  the  comet ; 
these  odd  phenomena  disappeared  the  next  day,  and  nothing 
was  seen  but  irregular  obscure  spaces  like  smoke  in  the  mid¬ 
dle  of  the  tail,  and  the  head  resumed  its  natural  form.  On 
the  15th  of  February,  the  tail  was  divided  into  two  branches, 
the  eastern  about  8  degrees  long,  the  western  24.  On  the 
23rd  the  tail  began  to  be  bent.  It  shewed  no  tail  till  it  was 
as  near  the  sun  as  the  orbit  of  Mars,  and  it  increased  in  length 
as  it  approached  nearer  that  luminary.  At  its  greatest  length, 
it  was  computed  to  equal  a  third  part  of  the  distance  of  the 
earth  from  the  sun.*  This  was  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
comets  that  had  appeared  since  that  of  1680.  Its  tail  was 
visible  for  a  long  time  after  its  body  was  hid  under  the  hori¬ 
zon  :  it  extended  20  or  30  degrees  above  the  horizon,  two 
hours  before  sunrise. 

4.  In  the  month  of  June,  1770,  Messier  discovered  a  comet, 
the  motions  of  which  appear  to  be  involved  in  a  considerable 

*  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  for  1744. 


encke’s  comet. 


305 


degree  of  mystery.  The  comet  continued  visible  for  a  long 
time.  Lexell  ascertained,  from  observation,  that  it  described 
an  ellipse  around  the  sun,  of  which  the  greater  axis  was  only 
three  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth’s  orbit,  which  corres¬ 
ponds  with  a  revolution  of  5^  years.  It  was  therefore  ex¬ 
pected  that  it  would  again  frequently  make  its  appearance; 
but  it  has  never  since  been  visible,  although  it  made  a  pretty 
brilliant  appearance  in  1770.  The  National  Institute  of  France, 
not  many  years  ago,  requested  M.  Burckhardt  to  repeat  all 
the  calculations  with  the  utmost  care  ;  and  the  result  of  his 
labour  has  been  a  complete  confirmation  of  the  elements  ob¬ 
tained  by  Lexell.  What  has  become  of  this  comet  it  is  diffi¬ 
cult  to  conjecture.  Its  aphelion,  or  greatest  distance  from 
the  sun,  was  reckoned  to  be  not  far  beyond  the  orbit  of  Jupi¬ 
ter,  and  that  it  approached  as  near  to  the  earth  as  the  moon, 
and  ought  to  have  appeared  twelve  times  since  the  year  1770. 
M.  Arago  attempts  to  solve  the  difficulty  by  affirming  that  its 
orbit  was  then  totally  different  from  that  which  it  has  since 
pursued ;  that  its  passage  to  the  point  of  perihelion  in  1776, 
when  it  was  expected,  took  place  by  day,  and  before  the  fol¬ 
lowing  return,  the  form  of  the  orbit  was  so  altered  that  had 
the  comet  been  visible  from  the  earth,  it  would  not  have  been 
recognised;  that  before  1767,  during  the  whole  progress  of  its 
revolutions,  its  shortest  distance  from  the  sun  was  199,000,000 
leagues,  and  that  after  1779,  the  minimum  distance  became 
131,000,000  leagues,  which  was  still  too  far  removed  for  the 
comet  to  be  perceptible  from  the  earth.  Sir  David  Brewster 
attempts  to  account  for  its  disappearance  by  supposing  that  it 
must  have  been  attracted  by  one  of  the  planets  whose  orbit  it 
crossed,  and  must  have  imparted  to  it  its  nebulous  mass  ;  and 
that  it  is  probable  the  comet  passed  near  Ceres  and  Pallas, 
and  imparted  to  them  those  immense  atmospheres  which  dis¬ 
tinguish  them  from  all  the  other  planets.  Whether  any  of 
these  opinions  be  tenable  and  sufficient  to  solve  the  difficulty, 
is  left  entirely  with  the  reader  to  determine. 

5.  Another  comet,  which  has  engaged  the  particular  atten¬ 
tion  of  astronomers  during  the  last  twenty  years,  is  distin¬ 
guished  from  all  preceding  comets  by  the  shortness  of  its 
periodic  revolution.  It  is  usually  denominated  Buckets  comet , 
so  called  from  Professor  Encke,  of  Berlin,  who  first  ascertained 
its  periodical  return.  It  was  discovered  at  Marseilles,  on  the 
26th  November,  1818,  by  M.  Pons,  and  its  parabolic  elements 
were  presented  to  the  Board  of  Longitude,  at  Paris,  by  M 
Bouvard,  on  the  13th  of  January,  1S19.  It  was  immediately 
remarked  that  the  result  of  Bouvard’s  calculations  was  too 

26* 


306 


encke’s  comet. 


similar  to  the  elements  of  a  comet  which  appeared  in  1805, 
not  to  consider  that  and  the  one  of  1818  as  the  same  body ; 
and  M.  Encke  soon  after  established,  by  incontestable  calcu¬ 
lations,  that  this  comet  took  only  about  1200  days,  or  three 
years  and  three-tenths,  to  travel  through  the  whole  extent  of 
its  elliptic  orbit.  This  was  considered  as  a  very  extraordinary 
result,  as  an  opinion  had  previously  prevailed  that  the  period 
of  a  revolution  of  a  comet  must  necessarily  be  long.  It  now 
appears  that  this  comet  was  first  seen  by  Messier  and  Mechain 
in  1786;  afterwards  by  Miss  Herschel  in  1795;  and  its  sub¬ 
sequent  returns  were  observed  by  different  astronomers  in 
1805  and  1819,  all  of  whom,  at  those  periods,  supposed  that 
the  four  comets  were  four  different  bodies.  The  elements  of 
this  comet,  and  the  short  period  of  its  revolution,  are  now  in- 
controvertibly  established  ;  for  its  re-appearance  in  the  south¬ 
ern  hemisphere  in  June,  1822,  took  place  very  nearly  in  the 
positions  previously  calculated.  The  agreement  was  not  less 
remarkable  in  1825 ;  and  in  1828,  the  third  period  of  its  an¬ 
nounced  return,  it  occupied  the  places  assigned  to  it  by  Encke 
the  year  preceding.  It  likewise  appeared  in  1832,  1835,  and 
1838. 

This  comet  is  very  small ;  its  light  is  feeble ;  it  has  no 
tail ;  it  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  except  in  very  favour¬ 
able  circumstances,  but  may  be  seen  with  a  small  magnifying 
power.  It  revolves  in  an  elliptical  orbit  of  considerable  ec¬ 
centricity,  having  an  inclination  to  the  plane  of  the  elliptic  of 
13J  degrees.  On  comparing  the  intervals  between  the  suc¬ 
cessive  perihelion  passages  of  this  comet,  a  singular  fact  has 
been  elicited,  namely,  that  its  periods  are  continually  dimi¬ 
nishing,  and  its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  shortening  by  slow 
but  regular  degrees.  This  is  supposed  by  M.  Encke  to  be 
produced  by  a  resistance  experienced  by  the  comet  from  a 
very  rare  etherial  medium  pervading  the  regions  through  which 
it  moves  ;  since  such  resistance,  by  diminishing  its  actual  ve¬ 
locity,  would  diminish  also  its  centrifugal  force,  and  thus  give 
the  sun  more  power  over  it  to  draw  it  nearer.  It  is  therefore 
the  opinion  of  Sir  J.  Herschel,  that  u  it  will  probably  fall  ulti¬ 
mately  into  the  sun,  should  it  not  first  be  dissipated  altogether, 
a  thing  no  way  improbable,  when  the  lightness  of  its  materials 
is  considered,  and  which  seems  authorized  by  the  observed 
fact  of  its  having  been  less  and  less  conspicuous  at  each  re¬ 
appearance.”  The  acceleration  of  this  comet  is  about  two 
days  in  each  revolution;  and  the  frequent  opportunities  of 
observation  which  will  occur,  in  consequence  of  the  shortness 


BIELA  AND  GAMBART’s  COMET.  307 

of  its  period,  may  lead  to  new  and  interesting  conclusions  in 
relation  to  the  nature  of  these  bodies. 

6.  Besides  the  above,  another  periodical  comet  has  lately 
been  discovered,  which  is  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Biela'’ s 
and  sometimes  QambarVs  comet.  This  comet  was  perceived 
at  Johanisberg,  on  the  27th  Feb.  1826,  by  M.  Biela;  and  by 
M.  Gambart,  at  Marseilles,  ten  days  afterwards.  Gambait, 
without  delay,  calculated  its  parabolic  elements  from  his 
own  observations,  and  by  inspecting  a  general  table  of  comets, 
he  recognized  that  it  was  not  its  first  appearance,  but  that  it 
had  been  already  observed  in  1789  and  1795.  Messrs.  Clau¬ 
sen  and  Gambart  undertook  the  computation  of  the  comet’s 
revolution,  and  found,  each  of  them  nearly  at  the  same  time, 
that  the  new  comet  made  its  entire  revolution  round  the  sun 
in  a  period  of  about  seven  years.  It  was  afterwards  found, 
more  accurately,  to  be  2460  days,  or  nearly  6J  years.  M. 
Damoiseau  calculated  the  perturbations  of  this  comet,  and 
predicted  that  it  would  cross  the  plane  of  the  earth’s  orbit  on 
the  29th  of  October,  1832,  a  little  before  midnight ,  at  a  point 
about  18,480  miles  within  the  orbit  of  the  earth.  According 
to  this  prediction,  the  comet  actually  made  its  appearance  in 
1832  about  the  time  now  specified.  Its  next  appearance  was 
calculated  to  happen  in  1S39  ;  and  it  was  reckoned  that  it 
would  arrive  at  its  perihelion  on  the  23d  July  of  that  year. 

The  predicted  appearance  of  this  comet  in  1832  seems  to 
have  produced  considerable  alarm,  particularly  in  France. 
Some  German  journalists  predicted  that  it  would  cross  the 
earth’s  orbit  near  the  point  at  which  the  earth  would  be  at 
the  time,  and  cause  the  destruction  of  our  globe.  Such  was 
the  degree  of  alarm  excited  on  this  occasion,  that  M.  G  *  *  *, 
a  Professor  in  Paris,  put  the  question  to  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  whether  it  did  not  feel  itself  bound  in  duty  to  refute, 
as  speedily  as  possible,  this  assertion.  u  Popular  terrors,”  he 
observed,  w  are  productive  of  serious  consequences.  Several 
members  of  the  Academy  may  still  remember  the  accidents 
and  disorders  which  followed  a  similar  threat,  imprudently 
communicated  to  the  Academy  by  M.  de  Lalande,  in  May, 
1773.  Persons  of  weak  mind  died  of  fright,  and  women  mis¬ 
carried.  There  were  not  wanting  people  who  knew  too  well 
the  art  of  turning  to  their  advantage  the  alarm  inspired  by  the 
approaching  comet,  and  places  in  paradise  were  sold  at  a  very 
high  rate.  The  announcement  of  the  comet  of  1832  may 
produce  similar  effects,  unless  the  authority  of  the  Academy 
apply  a  prompt  remedy ;  and  this  salutary  intervention  is  at 
this  moment  implored  by  many  benevolent  persons.”  It  was 


308 


THE  COMET  OF  1807. 


supposed  by  some,  that  if  any  disturbing  cause  should  delay 
the  arrival  of  the  comet  for  one  month,  the  earth  must  pass 
directly  through  its  head. 

In  order  to  dispel  such  fears,  and  to  illustrate  the  nature  of 
these  bodies,  M.  Arago  published  an  excellent  and  popular 
treatise  on  comets  in  the  w  Annuaire”  of  1832.  He  shewed 
that  the  result  of  the  calculation  was,  that  the  passage  of  the 
comet  ought  to  proceed  a  little  within  our  orbit ,  and  at  a  dis¬ 
tance  from  that  curve,  which  is  equal  to  four  terrestrial  radii 
and  two-thirds ,  or  about  37,000  miles ;  that  on  the  29th  Oc¬ 
tober,  1832,  a  portion  of  the  eartlds  orbit  might  be  included 
within  the  nebulosity  of  the  comet ;  but  that  the  earth  would 
not  arrive  at  the  same  point  of  its  orbit  till  the  morning  of  the 
30th  November,  or  more  than  a  month  afterwards;  and  con¬ 
sequently  that  the  earth  would  be  more  than  twenty  millions 
of  French  leagues  (or  fifty  millions  of  British  miles)  distant 
from  the  comet.  He  adds,  that  u  if  the  comet,  instead  of  cross¬ 
ing  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  on  the  29th  October,  had  not 
arrived  there  till  the  morning  of  the  30th  November,  it  would 
have  undoubtedly  mingled  its  atmosphere  with  ours,  and  per¬ 
haps  even  have  struck  us  !”  The  earth  is  considered  in  more 
danger,  if  danger  there  be,  from  this  comet  and  that  of  Encke 
than  from  any  other.  Encke’s  comet  crosses  the  orbit  of  the 
earth  sixty  times  in  the  course  of  a  century,  and  there  is  cer¬ 
tainly  a  possibility  that  it  might  come  into  collision  with  the 
earth,  but  the  probability  of  its  doing  so  is  very  small ;  and, 
besides,  this  comet  and  that  of  Gambart  are  so  extremely  rare, 
that  little  danger  is  to  be  apprehended,  even  although  a  con¬ 
tact  were  to  take  place.  Gambart’s  is  a  small,  insignificant 
comet,  without  a  tail,  or  any  appearance  whatever  of  a  solid 
nucleus,  and  is  not  distinguishable  by  the  naked  eye. 

7.  The  comet  of  1807.  This  was  the  first  comet  on  which 
I  had  an  opportunity  of  making  observations.  My  first  ob 
servation  was  on  the  evening  of  October  the  8th,  1807,  a  little 
after  sunset,  when  it  appeared  in  a  north-westerly  direction, 
not  far  distant  from  Arcturus,  which  was  then  only  a  little 
above  the  horizon.  To  the  naked  eye  it  appeared  somewhat 
like  a  dim  nebulous  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  with  a 
beam  of  light  on  one  side  of  it.  Through  a  telescope,  its  tail 
presented  a  pretty  brilliant  appearance,  and  occupied  a  space 
of  considerably  more  than  a  degree  in  length.  The  coma 
seemed  to  have  a  roundish,  but  dim  and  undefined  appearance, 
and  appeared  more  indistinct  as  the  magnifying  power  was 
increased.  When  viewed  with  an  achromatic  telescope  of 
thirty-one  inches  focal  distance,  and  a  power  of  thirty,  it  pre- 


THE  COMET  OF  1807. 


309 


sen  ted  a  very  distinct  and  beautiful  appearance,  and  the  nu¬ 
cleus,  coma,  and  tail,  nearly  filled  the  field  of  view.  When  a 
power  of  sixty  was  applied,  it  was  much  more  indistinct  than 
with  the  former  power,  and  in  all  the  subsequent  observations 
the  lower  power  was  generally  preferred.  In  the  course  of 
five  or  six  weeks,  or  about  the  middle  of  November,  it  disap¬ 
peared  to  the  naked  eye.  I  traced  it  with  the  telescope,  as 
often  as  the  weather  would  permit,  for  two  or  three  months 
after  it  had  become  invisible  to  the  unassisted  sight,  and  found 
that  its  apparent  motion  was  pretty  rapid,  and  towards  the 
north-east.  About  the  middle  of  January,  1808,  at  eleven  p.  m., 
it  appeared  in  a  direction  north-east  by  north  ;  and  at  this  time 
it  appeared  through  the  telescope  like  a  small  nebulous  star, 
or  like  those  species  of  comets  called  bearded  comets,  having 
no  trace  of  any  thing  similar  to  a  tail.  The  last  time  I  saw  it 
was  about  the  end  of  January,  when  it  was  still  distinctly 
visible,  like  a  nebulous  star ;  but  cloudy  weather  for  nearly  a 
fortnight  prevented  any  further  observations,  and  I  saw  it  no 
more.  On  the  evening  in  which  I  had  the  last  peep  of  it,  I  de¬ 
tected  another  comet  within  eight  or  ten  degrees  of  it,  which 
appeared  like  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude,  and  exhibited  a 
pretty  brilliant  appearance  through  the  telescope.  It  had  no 
tail,  like  the  former  comet,  but  appeared  surrounded  with  ra¬ 
diant  hairs  like  the  glory  which  painters  represent  around  the 
head  of  our  Saviour.  It  continued  visible  for  several  weeks ; 
but  I  have  not  seen  any  particular  notices  of  this  second 
comet,  or  any  special  observations  on  it,  which  have  been  re¬ 
corded  by  astronomers. 

This  comet  appears  to  have  been  first  noticed  by  Herschel 
and  Schroeter  about  the  4th  of  October,  1807,  who  continued 
their  observations  upon  it  for  several  months.  According  to 
Schroeter’s  observations  and  estimates,  the  diameter  of  the  nu¬ 
cleus  of  this  comet  was  about  4600  miles,  or  nearly  the  size 
of  the  planet  Mars,  and  appeared  to  be  of  considerable  density ; 
the  diameter  of  its  coma,  120,000  miles,  but  liable  at  different 
times,  to  variations  of  increase  and  decrease ;  and  its  rate  of 
motion,  at  certain  periods,  1,333,380  miles  a-day,  or  55,557 
miles  an  hour.  Its  tail  was  divided  in  a  very  unusual  manner 
into  two  separate  branches ;  the  north  side  continued  much 
brighter  and  better  defined  than  the  other,  and  was  also  inva- 
riaby  convex,  while  the  other  side  was  concave.  But  what 
was  deemed  most  remarkable  was  the  variation  in  length  and 
the  coruscations  of  the  tail.  Something  like  coruscation  had 
been  observed  by  the  naked  eye  in  the  case  of  preceding 
comets,  and  such  phenomena  appear  to  have  been  confirmed 


310 


THE  COMET  OF  1807. 


by  the  observations  of  Schroeter.  In  less  than  one  second, 
streamers  shot  forth  to  two  and  a  half  degrees  in  length  ;  they 
as  rapidly  disappeared  and  issued  out  again,  sometimes  in  por¬ 
tions  and  interrupted  like  our  northern  lights.  Afterwards 
the  tail  varied  both  in  length  and  breadth,  and  in  some  of 
the  observations,  the  streamers  shot  from  the  whole  ex¬ 
panded  end  of  the  tail,  sometimes  here,  sometimes  there,  in 
an  instant,  two  and  a  half  degrees  long,  so  that  within  a  single 
second  they  must  have  shot  out  a  distance  of  4,600,000  miles. 
Their  light  was  also  sometimes  whiter  and  clearer  at  the  end 
than  at  the  base,  as  is  occasionally  seen  in  the  northern  lights. 
Some  have  objected  to  the  extreme  rapidity  of  the  streamers 
as  here  stated,  but  the  fact  of  coruscations  having  been  seen 
appears  to  be  confirmed  by  the  observations  of  this  celebrated 
and  accurate  observer.  The  observations  of  Herschel  on  this 
comet  differ  in  some  respects  from  those  of  Schroeter,  parti¬ 
cularly  in  the  estimate  he  makes  of  the  size  of  the  nucleus, 
which  he  reckons  to  be  considerably  smaller  than  what  has 
been  stated  above. 

Fig.  78  is  a  view  of  this  comet  as  seen  on  the  night  of  Oc¬ 
tober  21st  by  Schroeter.  Fig.  79  is  a  view  of  the  same  comet 
as  seen  by  Bessel,  October  22nd,  at  eight  in  the  evening ;  both 
which  exhibit  its  divided  tail. 

8.  The  most  remarkable  comet  which  has  appeared  in 
modern  times,  since  that  of  1680,  was  the  comet  of  1811. 
About  the  beginning  of  September  in  that  year,  about  eight  or 
nine  in  the  evening,  as  I  was  taking  a  random  sweep  with  my 
telescope  over  the  north-western  quarter  of  the  heavens,  an 
uncommon  object  appeared  to  pass  rapidly  across  the  field  of 
view,  which  on  examination  appeared  to  be  a  splended  comet. 
Not  having  heard  of  the  appearance  of  any  such  body  at  that 
time,  I  was  led  to  imagine  that  I  had  fortunately  got  the  first 
peep  of  this  illustrious  stranger ;  but  I  afterwards  learned  from 
the  public  prints  that  it  had  been  seen  a  day  or  two  before  by 
Mr.  Neitch,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kelso,  who  appears  to 
have  been  the  first  that  observed  it  in  this  country.  This 
comet  appeared  with  peculiar  splendour,  and  was  visible,  even 
to  the  naked  eye,  for  more  than  three  months  in  succession, 
and  excited  universal  attention.  It  afforded  to  astronomers 
more  opportunities  for  observation  of  its  physical  aspect  and 
constitution,  and  for  determining  the  elements  of  its  orbit,  than 
almo-st  any  other  comet  that  had  previously  appeared.  The 
two  celebrated  observers,  Herschel  and  Schroeter,  made  nu¬ 
merous  and  very  particular  observations  on  the  phenomena 
and  motions  of  this  comet,  which  were  continued  every  clear 


COMET  OF  1811 


311 


evening  for  the  space  of  nearly  five  months.  Some  of  these 
observations,  along  with  the  remarks  and  deductions  con¬ 
nected  with  them,  are  extremely  interesting  to  the  astronomi¬ 
cal  observer ;  but  my  limits  will  permit  only  a  statement  of 
the  general  results. 

Fig.  78. 


312 


schroeter’s  observations  on 


Some  of  the  results  deduced  by  Schroeter  are  the  follow¬ 
ing  : — That  the  central  globe  of  light,  or  what  he  calls  the 
nucleus,  was  50,000  miles  in  diameter,  or  nearly  six  and  a 
half  times  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  which  he  deduced  from 
the  mean  of  twenty-seven  measurements,  which  gave  V  49" 
as  the  mean  angular  diameter  of  the  body ;  that  this  great 
body  was  in  all  probability  chiefly  fluid,  though  its  central 
parts  might  consist  of  denser  substances ;  and  that  there  was 
reason  to  believe  that  it  shone  with  its  own  native  light.  The 
coma  was  extremely  rarefied  in  comparison  with  the  nucleus, 
resembling  a  very  faint  whitish  light,  scattered  in  separate 
portions.  It  was  divided  into  two ;  one  immediately  encom¬ 
passing  the  nucleus,  the  other  of  a  more  faint  and  greyish 
light,  sweeping  round  it  at  a  distance,  and  forming  the  double 
tail  which  the  comet  presented.  The  train ,  or  head  veil ,  as 
he  terms  it,  swept  around  the  nucleus,  at  a  distance  equal  to 
its  breadth,  and  appeared  as  unconnected  as  the  ring  of  Saturn 
with  its  body,  and  which  sometimes  appeared  darker  than  the 
open  sky.  The  diameter  of  this  exterior  part  of  the  head 
was  34'  15",  or  about  947,000  miles,  which  is  larger  than  the 
diameter  of  the  sun,  and  which  he  thinks  must  have  formed  a 
hollow  cone  around  the  nucleus,  and  which  he  thought  indi¬ 
cated  a  force  of  a  repulsive  nature  residing  in  the  nucleus. 
Between  the  4th  and  6th  of  December  a  great  revolution  took 
place ;  the  rarefied  nebulous  matter,  which  had  for  three 
months  been  so  unusually  repelled  from  the  nucleus  on  every 
side,  to  a  distance  of  about  one-fifth  of  the  diameter  of  the 
head,  or  190,000  miles,  was  again  attracted  to  it,  affording  an 
incontrovertible  proof  of  physical  action  upon  a  great  scale, 
arising  doubtless  from  the  same  causes  which  produce  the 
other  phenomena  of  nature.  The  double  tail  of  this  comet 
was  exceeding  faint  compared  with  the  nucleus  and  coma. 
On  the  23rd  of  October,  it  extended  fully  eighteen  degrees, 
notwithstanding  its  oblique  position,  the  angle  at  the  sun 
being  then  61°  23';  at  the  earth,  69°;  and  at  the  comet,  49° 
37'.  Had  it  been  viewed  at  right  angles,  it  would  have  sub¬ 
tended  an  angle  of  36°  36',  equivalent  to  more  than  60,000,000 
of  miles,  which  is  more  than  half  the  distance  from  the  earth 
to  the  sun.  Coruscations ,  similar  to  those  which  appeared  in 
the  tail  of  the  comet  of  1807,  were  likewise  perceived,  parti¬ 
cularly  on  October  the  16th,  when  a  small  tail  instantaneously 
appeared,  then  vanished,  and  re-appeared,  which  was  in  length 
equal  to  three  times  the  diameter  of  the  comet’s  head,  or 
2,373,000  miles.  Other  displays  of  the  same  kind  took  place 
on  the  7th  of  November  and  the  18th  of  December.  These 


THE  COMET  OF  1811. 


313 


facts,  of  the  reality  of  which  Schroeter  entertained  not  the 
least  doubt,  must  be  considered  as  very  curious  and  extraor¬ 
dinary  phenomena.* 

Herschel’s  observations  nearly  agree  with  those  of  Schroe¬ 
ter,  excepting  that  he  estimates  the  diameter  of  the  nucleus  as 
very  much  smaller  than  what  is  stated  above.  He  estimates 
the  greatest  length  of  the  tail,  as  seen  on  the  15th  of  October, 
to  have  been  100,000,000,  or  a  hundred  millions  of  miles, 
which  consequently  extended  over  a  space  larger  than  that 
which  intervenes  between  the  earth  and  the  sun  *,  and  its 
breadth ,  as  deduced  from  the  observations  of  October  the 
12th,  nearly  fifteen  millions  of  miles.  He  calculated  its  dis¬ 
tance  when  nearest  the  earth  to  be  about  113  millions  of 
miles.  He  concluded  that  the  solid  matter  of  the  comet  was 
spherical,  that  it  shone  in  part  by  its  own  native  light,  and 
that  it  probably  had  a  rotation  round  its  axis.  From  the  most 
accurate  observations  of  the  motion  of  this  comet,  its  period 
of  revolution  has  been  calculated  to  exceed  3000  years. 
Bessel  computes  it  at  3383  years ;  and  several  other  astrono- 

*  Having  referred,  on  various  occasions,  to  the  observations  of  that  in¬ 
defatigable  astronomer,  Schroeter ,  of  Lilienthal,  it  may  not  be  uninterest¬ 
ing  to  some  readers  to  insert  the  account  of  the  losses  he  sustained  by  the 
burning  and  plunder  of  his  observatory,  as  expressed  in  his  own  pathetic 
language : — 

“  At  length,  after  the  most  touching  afflictions  of  mortality,  I  once  more 
awake  in  my  temple  consecrated  to  the  Eternal  Godhead,  and  am  again 
able,  after  a  total  derangement  of  my  affairs,  to  edit  these  collections  con¬ 
cerning  the  great  comet  of  1811.  Through  the  most  barbarous  fury,  in 
consequence  of  an  equally  barbarous  decision,  the  whole  innocent  soft  vale 
of  Lilies  [the  signification  of  the  name  Lilienthal,  where  his  observatory 
was  situated]  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  without  any  previous  examination. 
They  likewise  burnt  down  the  royal  government  buildings.  I  lost  my 
whole  moveable  property,  and,  what  was  most  sensibly  felt  by  me, 
amongst  it,  with  a  considerable  loss  also  to  the  booksellers  of  Europe,  the 
sole  copy  of  the  whole  of  my  works  and  writings  deposited  in  the  govern¬ 
ment  house.  Even  my  observatory,  preserved  by  Providence  from  the 
fire,  was  a  few  days  afterwards  broken  into,  plundered,  and  shamefully 
thrown  into  confusion  by  demolishing  the  clocks,  breaking  off  the  finders 
from  the  instruments,  and  carrying  off  the  smaller  instruments.  Pre¬ 
viously,  indeed,  having  been  removed  from  my  post,  my  income  had  gra¬ 
dually  become  so  very  straitened,  I  was  obliged  to  forego  all  but  the  most 
necessary  outlays,  and  to  give  myself  up  to  a  scientific  slumber.  Under  the 
endurance  of  these  troubles  all  my  scientific  patrons  and  friends  will  doubt¬ 
less,  as  far  as  possible,  excuse  me,  if  through  melancholy,  and  on  account 
of  the  extraordinary  high  rate  of  postage,  I  have  been  compelled  to  put 
out  of  sight  so  many  obligations  of  courtesy  ;  for  to  the  present  time  every 
thing  is  so  straitened  with  me  that  my  observatory,  from  want  of  time  and 
heavy  expenses,  is  for  the  most  part  a  confusion. 

“Joh.  Hieronym.  Schroeter.*' 

“  Lilienthal ,  Jan.  22,  1815.” 

Schroeter  did  not  long  survive  the  calamity  alluded  to  above.  He  died 
on  the  29th  of  August,  1816,  in  the  71st  year  of  his  age. 

Vol.  VIII.  27 


314  RE-APPEARANCE  OF  HALLEY’S  COMET  IN  1835. 

mers  conceive  its  period  to  be  considerably  longer,  even  ex¬ 
ceeding  4000  years. 

9.  Re-appearance  of  IJalley^s  comet  in  1835.  The  return 
of  this  comet  was  calculated  by  Messrs.  Damoiseau  and  Ponte- 
coulant;  the  former  of  whom  calculated  its  return  to  the  peri¬ 
helion  on  the  4th,  and  the  latter  on  the  7th  of  November, 
1835,  and  it  actually  arrived  at  that  point  only  a  few  days 
after  these  periods,  namely,  on  the  16th  of  November.  It  was 
first  seen  on  the  continent  in  the  month  of  August  that  year, 
but  does  not  appear  to  have  been  noticed  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Britain  till  more  than  a  month  afterwards.  Its  expected 
re-appearance  excited  universal  attention  throughout  Europe. 
Soon  after  the  middle  of  September,  as  I  was  taking  a  sweep 
with  a  two-feet  telescope  over  the  north-eastern  quarter  of  the 
heavens,  near  the  point  where  I  expected  its  appearance,  I 
happened  to  fix  my  eye  on  this  long-expected  visiter,  which 
appeared  very  small  and  obscure.  I  immediately  directed  an 
excellent  three  and  a  half  feet  achromatic  telescope,  with  a 
diagonal  eye-piece,  magnifying  about  thirty-four  times,  to  the 
comet,  when  it  was  distinctly  seen,  and  appeared  of  a  consi¬ 
derable  diameter,  but  still  somewhat  hazy  and  obscure.  I 
afterwards  applied  a  power  of  forty-five,  and  another  of  nine¬ 
ty-five  ;  but  it  was  seen  most  distinctly  with  the  lower  power. 
With  ninety-five  it  appeared  extremely  obscure,  and  nearly  of 
the  apparent  size  of  the  moon.*  There  appeared  at  this  time 
nothing  like  a  tail,  but  the  central  part  was  much  more  lumi¬ 
nous  than  the  other  portions  of  the  comet,  and  presented 
something  like  the  appearance  of  a  star  of  the  third  or  fourth 
magnitude  surrounded  with  a  haze.  In  some  of  the  views  I 
took  of  this  object,  the  luminous  part  or  nucleus  appeared  to 
be  considerably  nearer  one  side  than  another.  At  this  period, 
and  for  a  week  or  ten  days  afterwards,  the  comet  was  alto¬ 
gether  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  Many  subsequent  observa¬ 
tions  were  made,  and  published  in  the  provincial  newspapers, 
but  which  my  present  limits  prevent  me  from  inserting. 

After  the  comet  became  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  the  tail 
began  to  appear,  and  increased  in  length  as  it  approached  its 
perihelion,  and  at  its  utmost  extent  was  estimated  to  be  above 
thirty  degrees  in  length.  On  the  13th  of  October,  according 
to  the  observations  of  Arago,  a  luminous  sector  was  visible  in 
its  head;  on  the  day  following,  this  sector  had  disappeared, 

*  In  viewing  comets,  telescopes  with  large  apertures  and  comparatively 
low  magnifying  powers  should  generally  be  used,  as  the  faint  light  emit¬ 
ted  by  comets,  whether  it  be  inherent  or  reflected,  will  not  permit  the  use 
of  so  high  magnifying  powers  as  may  be  applied  to  the  planets. 


halley’s  comet. 


315 


and  a  more  brilliant  one  and  of  greater  longitudinal  extent 
was  formed  in  another  place.  This  second  sector  was  ob¬ 
served  on  the  17th,  when  it  appeared  less  bright;  and  on  the 
18th,  its  weakness  had  decidedly  increased.  The  comet  was 
concealed  till  the  21st,  but  on  that  day  three  distinct  sectors 
were  visible  in  the  nebulosity.  On  the  23rd,  all  traces  of 
these  sectors  had  disappeared,  the  nucleus,  which  had  pre¬ 
viously  been  brilliant  and  well-defined,  having  become  so 
large  and  diffuse  that  the  observer  could  scarcely  believe  in 
the  reality  of  such  a  sudden  and  important  alteration,  till  he 
satisfied  himself  that  the  appearance  was  not  occasioned  by 
moisture  on  the  glasses  of  his  instrument.  It  appears,  like¬ 
wise,  that  one  of  these  luminous  fans  or  sectors  was  observed 
by  Sir  J.  Herschel,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  after  the  comet 
had  passed  its  perihelion.  The  nebulosity  of  this  comet  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  increased  in  magnitude  as  it  approached  the  sun, 
but  its  changes  were  sometimes  unaccountably  rapid.  On  one 
occasion  it  was  observed  to  become  obscure  and  enlarged  in 
the  course  of  a  few  hours,  though  a  little  before,  its  nucleus 
was  clear  and  well  defined.  On  the  11th  of  October  the  Rev. 
T.  W.  Webb,  and  two  other  observers,  observed  coruscations 
in  the  tail.  On  that  evening,  at  7h  30',  the  tail  was  very  con¬ 
spicuous,  extending  between  x  and  y  Draconis,  and  evidently 
fluctuated,  or  rather  coruscated,  in  length,  being  occasionally 
short,  and  then  stretching  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  to  its 
full  extent,  which  was  at  least  equal  to  ten  degrees.  Its 
changes  were  extremely  similar  to  the  kindling  and  fading  of 
a  very  faint  streamer  of  the  Aurora  Borealis. 

The  influence  of  the  ethereal  medium  on  the  motion  of 
Halley’s  comet  will  be  known  after  another  revolution,  and 
future  astronomers  will  learn,  by  the  accuracy  of  its  returns, 
whether  it  has  met  with  any  unknown  cause  of  disturbance 
in  its  distant  journey.  Undiscovered  planets  beyond  the 
visible  boundary  of  our  system  may  change  its  path  and  the 
period  of  its  revolution,  and  thus  may  indirectly  reveal  to  us 
their  existence,  and  even  their  physical  nature  and  orbit.  The 
secrets  of  the  yet  more  distant  heavens  may  be  disclosed  to 
future  generations  by  comets  which  penetrate  still  further  into 
space,  such  as  that  of  1763,  which,  if  any  faith  may  be  placed 
in  the  computation*  goes  nearly  43  times  further  from  the  sun 
than  Halley’s  does,  and  shews  that  the  sun’s  attraction  is 
powerful  enough  at  the  distance  of  144,600  millions  of  miles 
to  recall  the  comet  to  its  perihelion.  The  periods  of  some 
comets  are  said  to  be  many  thousand  years,  and  even  the 
average  time  of  the  revolution  of  comets  generally  is  about  a 


316 


halley’s  comet. 


thousand  years ;  which  proves  that  the  sun’s  gravitating  force 
extends  very  far.  La  Place  estimates  that  the  solar  attraction 
is  felt  throughout  a  sphere  whose  radius  is  a  hundred  millions 
of  times  greater  than  the  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.” 
u  The  orbit  of  Halley’s  comet  is  four  times  longer  than  it  is 
broad ;  its  length  is  about  3420  millions  of  miles,  about  36 
times  the  mean  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun.  At  its 
perihelion  it  comes  within  57  millions  of  miles  of  the  sun, 
and  at  its  aphelion  it  is  60  times  more  distant.  On  account 
of  this  extensive  range,  it  must  experience  3600  times  more 
light  when  nearest  to  the  sun  than  in  the  most  remote  point 
of  its  orbit.  In  the  one  position  the  sun  will  seem  to  be  four 
times  larger  than  he  appears  to  us,  and  at  the  other  he  will 
not  be  apparently  larger  than  a  star.”* 

The  appearance  of  this  comet,  so  near  the  time  predicted 
by  astronomers,  and  in  positions  so  nearly  agreeing  with  those 
which  were  previously  calculated,  is  a  clear  proof  of  the  as¬ 
tonishing  accuracy  which  has  been  introduced  into  astronomi¬ 
cal  calculations,  and  of  the  soundness  of  those  principles  on 
which  the  astronomy  of  comets  is  founded.  It  likewise 
shews,  that  comets,  in  general,  are  permanent  bodies  con¬ 
nected  with  the  solar  system,  and  that  no  very  considerable 
change  in  their  constitution  takes  place  while  traversing  the 
distant  parts  of  their  orbits.f 

From  the  preceding  historical  sketches  and  descriptions, 
the  reader  will  learn  something  of  the  general  phenomena  of 
comets ;  and  I  shall  now  briefly  inquire  into  the  opinions 
which  have  been  formed  respecting  the 

*  Mrs.  Somerville’s  “Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences,”  a  work 
which,  though  written  in  a  popular  style,  would  do  honour  to  the  first 
philosophers  of  Europe.  Of  this  lady’s  profound  mathematical  work  on 
the  “  Mechanism  of  the  Heavens,”  the  Edinburgh  Reviewers  remark — 
“It  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  remarkable  works  that  female 
intellect  ever  produced  in  any  age  or  country ;  and  with  respect  to  the 
present  day,  we  hazard  little  in  saying,  that  Mrs.  Somerville  is  the  only 
individual  of  her  sex  in  the  world  who  could  have  written  it.” 

t  The  most  particular  observations  on  Halley’s  comet,  during  its  ap 
pearance  in  1835,  which  I  have  seen,  are  those  which  were  made  by  the 
Rev.  T.  W.  Webb,  of  Tretire,  near  Ross,  an  account  of  which,  with 
deductions  and  remarks,  was  read  to  the  Worcestershire  Natural  History 
Society.  The  observations  were  made  with  an  excellent  achromatic  tele¬ 
scope  by  Tulley,  of  5  feet  6  inches  focal  length,  and  3  7-10  inches  aper¬ 
ture.  Through  the  kindness  of  this  gentleman  I  was  favoured  with  a 
manuscript  copy  of  these  observations,  and  would  have  availed  myself  of 
many  of  his  judicious  remarks,  had  my  limits  permitted. 


PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  COMETS. 


317 


PHYSICAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  COMETS. 

On  this  subject  our  knowledge  is  very  imperfect ;  in  fact, 
we  may  be  said  to  know  little  or  nothing  of  the  physical  con¬ 
struction  of  those  mysterious  bodies,  or  of  the  nature  of  the 
substances  of  which  they  are  composed.  In  regard  to  the 
nebulosity  of  comets,  where  there  appears  no  nucleus,  it  has 
been  conjectured  to  be  composed  of  something  analogous  to 
globular  masses  of  vapour,  slightly  condensed  towards  the 
centre,  and  shining  either  by  inherent  light  or  by  the  reflected 
rays  of  the  sun.  When  there  is  a  nucleus  in  the  centre  of  a 
comet,  it  seldom  happens  that  the  nebulosity  extends  to  it 
with  a  gradually  increasing  intensity.  On  the  contrary,  the 
parts  of  the  nebulosity  near  the  nucleus  are  but  slightly 
luminous,  and  seem  to  be  extremely  rarefied  and  transparent. 
At  some  distance  from  their  centre,  their  shining  quality  is 
suddenly  increased,  so  that  it  looks  like  a  ring  of  invariable 
size  resting  in  equilibrium  around  the  centre.  Sometimes  two, 
and  even  three  of  these  concentric  rings  have  been  perceived 
separated  by  intervals  ;  but  what  appears  to  be  a  ring  must  in 
reality  be  a  spherical  covering ,  an  idea  of  which  may  be 
formed  by  imagining,  in  our  atmosphere,  at  three  different 
heights,  three  continued  layers  of  clouds  entirely  covering  the 
globe.  The  matter  of  the  nebulosity  is  so  rare  and  transparent 
that  the  smallest  stars  may  frequently  be  seen  through  it. 

As  to  the  nucleus ,  it  is  generally  considered  as  the  solid  or 
densest  part  of  the  comet.  The  nuclei  of  comets  are  some¬ 
times  very  similar  to  the  disks  of  planets,  both  in  form  and 
brightness.  They  are  generally  small  compared  with  the 
whole  size  of  the  comet ;  but  in  some  cases  they  are  of  con¬ 
siderable  magnitude,  as  we  have  already  stated  in  respect  to 
the  comets  of  1807  and  1811.  Some  suppose  that  the  nuclei 
of  comets  are  transparent,  as  well  as  their  nebulosities,  and 
allege  as  a  proof  that  stars  have  been  seen  through  a  nucleus. 
Thus,  Montaigne  is  said  to  have  seen  a  star  of  the  sixth  mag¬ 
nitude  through  the  nucleus  of  a  small  comet,  and  Olbers  saw 
a  star  of  the  seventh  magnitude,  although  it  was  covered  by  a 
comet,  and  without  its  light  being  rendered  less  powerful ;  but 
the  accuracy  of  such  observations  has  been  called  in  question. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  concluded  that  the  nucleus  of 
a  comet  has  on  several  occasions  eclipsed  a  star  which  was  in 
the  same  line  of  vision.  Messier,  when  observing  the  small 
comet  of  1774,  perceived  a  star  which  was  eclipsed  by  the 
opaque  body  of  a  comet,  or  at  least,  all  the  circumstances  at- 

27* 


318 


CIRCUMSTANCES  CONNECTED  WITH 


tending  it  led  to  that  conclusion.  On  the  28th  of  Nov.  1828, 
at  10h  30'  p.m.,  M.  Wartmann,  at  Geneva,  perceived  a  star  of 
the  eighth  magnitude  completely  eclipsed  by  Encke’s  comet. 
Comets  have  likewise  been  observed  to  transit  the  disk  of  the 
sun  like  dark  spots.  M.  Gambart,  of  Marseilles,  calculated 
that  a  comet  which  he  had  observed  would  pass  across  the 
sun  on  the  morning  of  the  18th  of  November,  1826,  and  both 
he  and  M.  Flaucerques  were  successful  in  obtaining  a  sight  of 
it  during  its  transit.  Mr.  Capel  Llofft,  on  the  6th  June,  1818, 
at  11  a.m.,  saw  a  body  passing  over  the  sun’s  disk,  which  ap¬ 
pears  to  have  been  a  comet.  It  was  likewise  seen  on  the  same 
day  by  Mr.  Acton,  at  2h  30',  considerably  advanced  beyond 
the  point  in  which  it  was  seen  at  11  a.m.,  and  its  progress 
over  the  disk  seems  to  have  exceeded  that  of  Venus  in  transit. 
These  observations  seem  evidently  to  indicate  that  some 
comets  at  least  have  nuclei  composed  of  solid  and  opaque 
materials.  From  all  the  observations  in  relation  to  this  point, 
collected  by  M.  Arago,  he  deduces  the  following  conclusions : 
1.  That  there  exist  some  comets  destitute  of  the  nucleus.  2.. 
That  there  are  other  comets,  the  nuclei  of  which  are  trans¬ 
parent.  3.  That  there  are  also  comets,  which  are  more  bril¬ 
liant  than  the  planets,  the  nuclei  of  which  are  probably  solid 
and  opaque. 

In  respect  to  the  tail ,  or  luminous  train  which  generally  ac¬ 
companies  comets,  it  is  found  that  it  is  generally  in  opposition 
to  the  sun,  or  on  the  prolongation  of  the  line  which  would 
join  the  sun  and  the  nucleus.  But  this  is  not  always  the  case, 
Sometimes  the  direction  of  the  tail  has  been  found  at  right 
angles  with  this  line ;  and  in  some  extraordinary  instances; 
the  tails  of  comets  have  been  observed  to  point  directly  to¬ 
wards  the  sun.  This  was  the  case  with  a  comet  that  appeared 
in  1824,  which  for  about  eight  days  exhibited  an  additional  lu¬ 
minous  train  in  opposition  to  that  which  assumed  the  ordinary 
direction.  This  anomalous  tail,  according  to  Olbers,  was  7° 
long,  while  the  other  was  only  3i°,  and  it  was  bright  enough 
to  be  seen  with  an  opera-glass.  In  general,  however,  it  is  found 
that  the  tail  inclines  constantly  towards  the  region  last  quitted 
by  the  comet,  as  if  in  its  progress  through  an  etherial  medium, 
the  matter  forming  it  experienced  more  resistance  than  that  of 
the  nucleus.  The  tail  is  generally  enlarged  in  proportion  to 
its  distance  from  the  head  of  the  comet,  and  in  certain  cases 
it  is  divided  into  several  branches,  as  already  noticed  of  the 
comet  of  1807.  Some  have  supposed  that  the  divided  tail  is 
nothing  more  than  a  perspective  representation  of  the  sides  of 
a  great  hollow  cone  \  but  there  are  certain  observations  which 


THE  TAILS  OF  COMETS. 


319 


seem  to  prove  that,  in  some  cases,  they  have  a  separate  exis¬ 
tence  as  independent  branches.  The  most  remarkable  instance 
of  a  divided  tail  was  in  the  comet  of  1744.  On  the  6th  and 
7th  of  March,  there  were  six  branches  in  the  tail,  each  of 
them  about  4°  in  breadth,  and  from  30°  to  40°  long.  Their 
edges  were  pretty  well  defined  and  tolerably  bright;  their 
middle  emitted  but  a  feeble  light,  and  the  intervening  spaces 
were  as  dark  as  the  rest  of  the  firmament.  The  tails  of  comets, 
as  already  noticed,  sometimes  cover  an  immense  space  in  the 
heavens.  The  comet  of  1680  had  a  tail  which  extended  to 
68°,  that  of  1811  to  23°,  and  that  of  1769  to  97°  in  length; 
so  that  some  of  these  tails  must  have  reached  from  the  zenith 
to  the  horizon.  The  length  of  the  tail  of  the  comet  of  1680, 
estimated  in  miles,  was  112,750,000;  that  of  1769,  44,000,- 
000 ;  and  that  of  1744,  8,250,000  miles.  A  body  moving  at 
the  rate  of. 20  miles  every  hour  would  not  pass  over  the  space 
occupied  by' the  tail  of  the  comet  of  1680  in  less  than  643 
years.  It  has  been  supposed  by  some  astronomers  that  certain 
changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  tails  of  comets  arise  from  the 
rotation  of  the  cometary  body ;  as  some  comets  have  been 
supposed  to  rotate  about  an  axis  passing  through  the  centre 
of  the  tail,  such  as  that  of  1825,  which  was  concluded,  from 
certain  appearances,  to  perform  its  rotation  in  20  hours,  30 
minutes. 

As  to  the  nature  of  the  immense  tails  of  comets,  their  origin, 
or  the  substances  of  which  they  are  composed,  we  are  entirely 
ignorant,  and  it  would  be  wasting  time  to  enter  into  any 
speculation  on  this  subject,  as  nothing  could  be  presented  to 
the  view  of  the  reader  but  vague  conjectures,  gratuitous  hy¬ 
potheses,  and  unfounded  theories. 

MISCELLANEOUS  REMARKS  ON  COMETS. 

1.  Whether  comets  shine  with  their  own  native  light ,  or  de¬ 
rive  their  light  from  the  sun? — This  is  a  question  about  which 
there  have  been  different  opinions,  and  at  the  present  moment 
it  may  be  considered  as  still  undetermined,  though  the  proba¬ 
bility  is,  that  in  general,  they  derive  their  light  from  the  same 
source  as  the  planets.  It  appears  to  have  been  the  opinion  of 
both  Schroeter  and  Herschel,  that  the  comet  of  1811  shone 
by  inherent  light ;  and  the  rapid  variations  which  have  been 
observed  in  the  brightness  of  the  nucleus,  and  the  coruscations 
of  the  tail,  are  considered  by  some  as  inexplicable  on  any 
other  hypothesis.  It  is  likewise  supposed  that  certain  pheno  • 
mena  which  have  been  observed  in  the  case  of  faint  and  rare- 


320 


LIGHT  OF  COMETS. 


fied'  comets  tend  to  corroborate  the  same  position.  For  ex¬ 
ample,  Sir  J.  Herschel,  on  September  23,  1832,  saw  a  small 
group  of  stars  of  the  16th  and  17th  magnitude  through  the 
comet  of  Biela.  Though  this  group  could  have  been  effaced 
by  the  most  trifling  fog,  yet  they  were  visible  through  a  thick¬ 
ness  of  more  than  50,000  miles  of  cometary  matter ;  and 
therefore  it  is  supposed  scarcely  credible  that  so  transparent 
a  material,  affording  a  free  passage  to  the  light  of  such  minute 
stars,  could  be  capable  of  arresting  and  reflecting  to  us  the 
solar  rays.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  been  objected  to  this 
opinion,  that  comets  have  appeared  as  dark  spots  on  the  disk 
of  the  sun ;  that  their  light  exhibits  traces  of  polarization ; 
and  that  they  have  been  occasionally  observed  to  exhibit 
phases.  M.  Arago  remarks,  that  w  on  the  very  day  that  any 
comet  shall  appear  with  a  distinct  phase,  all  doubts  on  this 
subject  will  have  ceased.”  But  it  is  considered  doubtful  whe¬ 
ther  any  decided  phase  has  yet  been  perceived,  although  some 
observers  were  led,  from  certain  phenomena,  to  infer  that 
something  like  a  phase  was  presented  to  their  view.  It  is 
found  that  all  direct  light  constantly  divides  itself  into  two 
points  of  the  same  intensity  when  it  traverses  a  crystal  possess¬ 
ing  the  power  of  double  refraction ;  reflected  light  gives,  on 
the  contrary,  in  certain  portions  of  the  crystal  through  which 
it  is  made  to  pass,  two  images  of  unequal  intensity,  provided 
the  angle  of  reflection  is  not  90°  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  polar¬ 
ized  in  the  act  of  reflection.  On  this  principle,  M.  Arago  pointed 
out  a  phometrical  method  of  determining  whether  comets  bor¬ 
row  their  light  from  the  sun,  or  are  luminous  in  themselves. 
On  the  23d  of  October,  1835,  having  applied  his  new  apparatus 
to  the  observation  of  Halley’s  comet,  he  immediately  saw  two 
images  presenting  the  complementary  colours,  one  of  them 
red,  the  other  green.  By  turning  the  instrument  half  round, 
the  red  image  became  green,  and  vice  versa.  He  concluded 
therefore  that  the  light  of  the  comet,  at  least  the  whole  of  it, 
is  not  composed  of  rays  possessing  the  property  of  direct  light, 
but  consists  of  that  which  is  polarized  or  reflected  specularly: 
that  is,  of  light  derived  from  the  sun.  These  experiments 
were  repeated  with  the  same  result  by  three  other  observers 
in  the  Observatory  of  Paris. 

2.  It  appears  to  be  a  remarkable  fact  in  respect  to  comets, 
that  the  real  diameter  of  the  nebulosity  increases  proportion- 
ably  as  the  comet  becomes  distant  from  the  sun.  Hevelius 
appears  to  have  been  the  first  who  made  this  observation ;  but 
it  seems  to  have  been  overlooked,  and  even  an  opposite  posi¬ 
tion  maintained.  As  the  tails  of  comets  increase  in  length  as 


WHETHER  COMETS  MAY  PROVE  DESTRUCTIVE,  ETC.  321 

they  approach  their  perihelia,  so  it  was  generally  considered 
that  the  nebulosities  followed  the  same  law ;  but  the  observa¬ 
tions  which  have  lately  been  made  on  Biela’s  comet  have  con¬ 
firmed  the  observations  of  Hevelius.  On  the  28th  of  October, 
182S,  this  comet  was  found  to  be  nearly  three  times  further 
from  the  sun  than  on  the  24th  of  December,  or  in  the  propor¬ 
tion  of  1.4617,  to  0.5419,  yet  in  October  its  diameter  was 
about  twenty-six  times  greater  than  in  December,  or  in  the 
proportion  of  79.4  to  3.1  ;  that  is,  its  solid  contents  on  the 
28th  of  October  were  16,800  times  greater  than  on  the  24th 
of  December,  and  the  smallest  size  of  the  comet  corresponded 
to  its  least  distance  from  the  sun.  M.  Valz,  of  Nimes,  and  Sir 
John  Iierschel  have  attempted  to  account  for  this  circumstance 
on  very  different  principles,  but  neither  hypothesis  appears  to 
be  satisfactory. 

3.  Whether  a  comet  may  ever  come  in  contact,  with  the  eartlu 
and  produce  a  concussion  f — As  comets  move  in  orbits  which 
form  extremely  elongated  ellipses ;  as  they  move  in  all  ima¬ 
ginable  directions ;  as  they  traverse  almost  every  part  of  the 
solar  system  in  returning  from  the  furthest  verge  of  their  ex¬ 
cursions  ;  as  they  penetrate  within  the  interior  of  the  planetary 
orbits — even  within  the  orbit  of  Mercury,  and  cross  the  orbits 
of  the  earth  and  the  other  planets,  it  is  not  impossible  that  a 
comet  may  come  in  contact  with  our  globe.  An  apprehension 
of  such  an  event  produced  a  considerable  degree  of  alarm  on 
the  Continent  at  different  periods,  particularly  in  1773  and 
1832,  as  formerly  stated.  But  when  we  consider  the  immense 
cubical  space  occupied  by  the  planetary  system  in  which  the 
comets  move,  and  compare  it  with  the  small  capacities  of  these 
bodies  ;  and  when  we  take  into  view  certain  mathematical 
calculations  in  reference  to  the  subject,  the  probability  of  a 
shock  from  a  comet  is  extremely  small.  u  Let  us  suppose,” 
says  Arago,  u  a  comet  of  which  we  only  know  that  at  its  peri¬ 
helion  it  is  nearer  the  sun  than  we  are,  and  that  its  diameter 
is  one-fourth  of  that  of  the  earth,  the  calculation  of  probabili¬ 
ties  shews  that  of  281,000,000  of  chances  there  is  only  one 
unfavourable,  there  exists  but  one  which  can  produce  a  collision 
between  the  two  bodies.  As  for  the  nebulosity ,  in  its  most 
general  dimensions,  the  unfavourable  chances  will  be  from  ten 
to  twenty  in  the  same  number  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-one 
millions.  Admitting  then,  for  a  moment,  that  the  comets 
which  may  strike  the  earth  with  their  nuclei  Avould  annihilate 
the  whole  human  race,  then  the  danger  of  death  to  each  indi¬ 
vidual,  resulting  from  the  appearance  of  an  unknown  comet, 
would  be  exactly  equal  to  the  risk  he  would  run  if  in  an  urn 


3 22  WHETHER  COMETS  MAY  FALL  INTO  THE  SUN. 


there  was  only  one  single  white  ball  of  a  total  number  of 
281,000,000  balls,  and  that  his  condemnation  to  death  would 
be  the  inevitable  consequence  of  the  white  ball  being  produced 
at  the  first  drawing.” 

When  we  consider  that  a  Wise  and  Almighty  Ruler  super¬ 
intends  and  directs  the  movements  of  all  the  great  bodies  in 
the  universe,  and  the  erratic  motions  of  comets  among  the 
rest;  and  that  no  event  can  befal  our  world  without  his 
sovereign  permission  and  appointment,  we  may  repose  our¬ 
selves  in  perfect  security  that  no  catastrophe  from  the  impulse 
of  celestial  agents  shall  ever  take  place  but  in  unison  with  his 
will,  and  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  plans  of  his  universal 
providence.  At  the  same  time,  the  possibility  of  a  shock  from 
a  large  comet  shews  us  that  this  earth  and  all  its  inhabitants 
are  dependent  for  their  present  existence  and  comforts  on  the 
will  of  an  Almighty  Agent,  u  in  whom  we  live,  and  move, 
and  have  our  being ;”  and  that  were  it  conformable  to  his  all¬ 
wise  and  eternal  designs,  he  could  easily  disarrange  the  struc¬ 
ture  of  our  globe,  and  reduce  its  inhabitants  either  to  misery 
or  to  complete  destruction ;  and  that,  too,  without  altering  a 
single  physical  law  which  now  operates  throughout  the  uni¬ 
verse. 

If  we  recognise  the  Scriptures  as  a  revelation  from  God,  we 
may  rest  assured  that  no  danger  from  such  a  cause  can  hap¬ 
pen  to  our  world  for  ages  yet  to  come ;  for  there  are  many 
important  predictions  contained  in  revelation  which  have  not 
yet  received  their  accomplishment,  and  must  be  fulfilled  before 
any  fatal  catastrophe  can  happen  to  our  globe.  It  is  predicted 
that  the  Jews  shall  be  brought  into  the  Christian  church  w  with 
the  fulness  of  the  Gentiles,”' — that  u  the  idols  of  the  nations 
shall  be  abolished,” — that  “  wars  shall  cease  to  the  ends  of 
the  earth,” — that  the  kingdom  of  Messiah  shall  extend  over 
all  nations, — that  u  the  knowledge  of  Jehovah  shall  cover  the 
earth,  and  that  all  shall  know  him  from  the  least  to  the  great¬ 
est,” — that  u  the  earth  shall  yield  its  increase,”  and  its  deso¬ 
late  Avastes  be  cultivated  and  inhabited, — that  moral  order 
shall  prevail,  and  u  righteousness  and  praise  spring  forth  be¬ 
fore  all  the  nations,” — and  that  this  happy  era  of  the  world 
shall  continue  during  a  lapse  of  ages.  These  events  have  not 
yet  been  accomplished,  though  at  the  present  moment  they 
appear  either  in  a  state  of  commencement  or  of  progression ; 
but  they  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  fully  realized  till  after  a 
lapse  of  centuries.  The  believer  in  Divine  revelation,  there¬ 
fore,  has  the  fullest  assurance  that,  whatever  directions  comets 
may  take  in  their  motions  towards  the  centre  of  our  system, 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS  ON  OUR  GLOBE.  323 

none  of  them  shall  be  permitted  to  impinge  upon  our  globe,, 
or  to  effect  its  destruction,  for  at  least  a  thousand  years  to 
come,  or  till  the  above  and  other  predictions  be  completely 
accomplished. 

4.  Another  question  occurs  on  this  subject — namely,  whe¬ 
ther  any  comets  have  ever  fallen  into  the  sun  f — It  was  the 
opinion  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  that  one  purpose  for  which 
comets  are  destined  is,  to  recruit  the  sun  with  fresh  fuel,  and 
repair  the  great  consumption  of  his  light  by  the  streams  con¬ 
tinually  emitted  every  way  from  that  luminary  ;  and  that  such 
comets  as  come  very  near  the  sun  in  their  perihelions  meet 
every  time  with  so  much  resistance  from  his  atmosphere  as  to 
abate  their  projectile  force ;  by  the  constant  diminution  of 
which,  the  centripetal  power,  or  gravitation  towards  the  sun, 
would  be  so  increased  as  to  make  them  fall  into  his  body.  On 
a  similar  principle,  Arago  supposes  that  the  comet  of  1680, 
which  approached  so  near  the  body  of  the  sun,  must  have 
passed  nearer  to  his  surface  at  that  time  than  at  its  preceding 
apparitions ;  that  the  decrease  in  the  dimensions  of  the  orbit 
will  continue  on  each  succeeding  return  to  its  point  of  peri¬ 
helion  ;  and  that  “it  will  terminate  its  career  by  falling  upon 
the  sun.”  But  he  acknowledges  that,  u  from  our  ignorance  of 
the  densities  of  the  various  strata  of  the  sun’s  atmosphere,  of 
that  of  the  comet  of  1680,  and  of  the  time  of  its  revolution,  it 
will  be  impossible  to  calculate  after  how  many  ages  this  ex¬ 
traordinary  event  is  to  happen  and  he  likewise  admits  that 
“  the  annals  of  astronomy  do  not  afford  any  reason  to  suppose 
the  previous  occurrence  of  such  an  event  since  the  origin  of 
historical  record so  that  we  have  no  direct  evidence  that 
such  an  event  has  ever  taken  place,  or  that  it  ever  will.  We 
know  too  little  of  the  physical  constitution  of  the  sun,  and  of 
the  nature  of  comets,  to  be  able  to  assert  that  the  falling  of  a 
comet  into  the  sun  would  actually  recruit  the  luminous  matter 
of  which  his  outer  surface  is  composed  ;  for  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  there  is  little  or  no  analogy  between  the  mode 
in  which  we  supply  our  fires  by  means  of  fagots,  and  that  by 
which  the  solar  light  is  recruited  and  preserved  in  its  pristine 
vigour ;  and  besides,  it  is  found  that  bodies,  particularly  in 
certain  electric  states,  may  be  rendered  luminous  without  the 
addition  of  any  extraneous  body  to  their  substances. 

OF  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS  ON  THE  EARTH. 

In  former  times  the  appearance  of  comets  was  supposed  to 
be  the  forerunner  of  wars,  revolutions,  famine,  pestilence,  the 


324  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS  ON  OUR  GLOBE. 


deaths  of  great  men,  earthquakes,  inundations  and  other  cala¬ 
mities.  When  the  splendid  comet  of  1456  appeared,  (sup¬ 
posed  to  be  the  same  as  Halley’s  comet,)  its  tail  extended  at 
one  time  over  more  than  60  degrees.  Three  days  before  its 
perihelion,  its  nucleus  was  as  bright  as  a  fixed  star,  its  tail  of 
the  colour  of  gold,  and  it  appears  to  have  exhibited  corusca¬ 
tions.  Pope  Calixtus,  believing  it  to  be  at  once  the  sign  and 
instrument  of  Divine  wrath,  was  so  frightened  at  its  appear¬ 
ance  that  he  ordered  public  prayers  to  be  offered  up  in  every 
town,  and  the  bells  to  be  tolled  at  the  noon  of  each  day,  to 
warn  the  people  to  supplicate  the  mercy  of  Heaven.  He  at  the 
same  time  excommunicated  both  the  comet  and  the  Turks, 
whose  arms  had  lately  proved  victorious  against  the  Chris¬ 
tians,  and  established  the  custom,  which  still  exists  in  Catholic 
countries,  of  ringing  the  church  bells  at  noon.  In  modern 
times,  certain  natural  effects  have  likewise  been  attributed  to 
the  influence  of  comets;  such  as  tempests,  hurricanes,  volca¬ 
nic  eruptions,  cold  or  hot  seasons,  overflowings  of  rivers,  fogs, 
dense  clouds  of  flies  or  locusts,  the  plague,  the  dysentery,  the 
cholera,  and  other  disorders. 

Mr.  T.  Forster,  a  respectable  writer  on  natural  science,  au¬ 
thor  of  “Researches  about  Atmospherical  Phenomena,”  &c., 
published  in  1829  a  work  on  the  “  Atmospherical  Causes  of 
Epidemic  Diseases,”  in  which  he  maintains  that  the  most  un¬ 
healthy  periods  are  those  during  which  some  great  comet  has 
been  seen ;  that  the  appearance  of  these  bodies  has  been  ac¬ 
companied  by  earthquakes,  eruptions  of  volcanoes,  and  atmo¬ 
spheric  commotions  ;  and  that  no  comet  has  been  seen  during 
seasons  of  healthiness.  For  example,  in  the  year  1665  a 
comet  made  its  appearance,  and  soon  after  its  disappearance, 
the  city  of  London  was  ravaged  by  the  plague.  In  1680  one 
of  the  most  splendid  comets  which  have  been  observed  in 
modern  times  made  its  appearance.  The  atmospheric  effect 
produced  by  its  influence,  according  to  Mr.  Forster,  was  “a 
cold  winter,  followed  by  a  dry  and  hot  summer,”  and  “  me¬ 
teors  in  Germany.”  As  the  influence  of  comets  on  our  globe 
and  its  atmosphere  (if  such  an  influence  exist)  must  have  a 
respect  to  the  whole  earth,  and  not  merely  to  any  particular 
portion  of  it,  we  might  ask,  in  reference  to  the  first  example, 
why  did  not  the  comet  of  1665  produce  a  similar  effect  in 
Amsterdam,  Vienna,  Paris  and  Madrid,  and  in  the  principal 
cities  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America  ?  But  of  such  effects  we 
never  had  the  least  intimation.  In  respect  to  the  second  ex¬ 
ample,  we  are  warranted  to  inquire,  whether  the  cold  winter 
was  followed  by  a  hot  summer  in  every  other  climate  of  the 


SUPPOSED  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS. 


325 


earth  ?  whether  meteors  were  as  common  in  other  countries 
as  in  Germany  ?  and  whether  the  comet  produced  opposite 
effects,  at  one  time  congealing  the  pools  and  rivers,  and  at 
another  scorching  the  earth  with  heat  ?  If  such  questions  can¬ 
not  be  satisfactorily  answered,  we  are  not  warranted  in  attribut¬ 
ing  such  effects  to  the  influence  of  comets. 

We  err  egregiously,  in  this  as  well  as  in  many  other  re¬ 
spects,  when  we  infer,  from  two  contemporaneous  events,  that 
the  one  is  either  the  sign  or  the  cause  of  the  other.  It  is  on 
a  principle  of  this  kind  that  some  persons  are  led  to  attribute 
the  events  to  which  we  have  alluded  to  the  influence  of 
comets.  Because  an  inundation,  a  war,  a  political  convulsion, 
or  a  volcanic  eruption  has  taken  place  at  the  time  of  the  ap¬ 
proach  of  a  comet  to  this  part  of  our  system,  therefore  they 
conclude  that  there  must  be  a  certain  connexion  between 
such  events,  and  that  the  one  is  the  cause,  and  the  other  the 
effect ;  while  the  two  events,  in  point  of  fact,  may  not  have 
the  slightest  relation  to  each  other,  except  their  casual  occur¬ 
rence  at  the  same  period.  We  might,  on  the  same  grounds, 
infer  that  the  rising  of  the  star  Sirius  along  with  the  sun, 
which  announced  to  the  Egyptians  the  rise  of  the  Nile,  was 
the  cause  of  the  annual  overflowing  of  that  river.  Before  we 
can  identify  any  event  with  the  influence  of  a  comet,  we  must 
not  confine  our  views  to  an  event  or  two  in  our  immediate 
neighbourhood,  but  must  endeavour  to  ascertain  whether  simi¬ 
lar  events  or  phenomena  have  happened  on  every  part  of  the 
earth  at  the  same  period.  As  comets,  either  large  or  small, 
either  visible  to  the  naked  eye  or  through  a  telescope,  make 
their  appearance  at  an  average  almost  every  year,  and  as 
epidemics,  political  commotions,  earthquakes,  hurricanes,  and 
similar  events  are  always  to  be  found  occurring  in  some  par¬ 
ticular  portions  of  the  globe,  we  should  never  be  at  a  loss  for 
a  physical  cause  to  account  for  every  thing  that  happens  here 
below,  if  comets  are  to  be  supposed  to  have  such  an  influence 
over  terrestrial  affairs.  Whatever  takes  place  in  any  country 
of  an  uncommon  nature  might  then  be  attributed  to  a  comet 
which  is  either  approaching  the  centre  of  our  system  or  re¬ 
ceding  from  it. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  announcemen  of  a  comet  has  ge¬ 
nerally  been  received  with  melancholy  anticipations,  and  the 
effects  attributed  to  its  influence  have  uniformly  been  of  a 
calamitous  nature.  But  why  should  it  not  be  the  precursor 
of  prosperous  events — of  peace,  plenty,  social  tranquillity, 
and  genial  seasons — as  well  as  of  wars,  famines,  revolutions, 
Vol.  VIII.  28 


326 


SUPPOSED  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS. 


cold  winters,  and  parched  summers  ?  It  seems  something  like 
a  reflection  on  the  general  benevolence  of  the  Deity  to  ima¬ 
gine  that  he  has  created  such  a  vast  number  of  bodies,  and 
directed  their  course  through  every  part  of  the  planetary  re¬ 
gions,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  44  shaking  from  their  horrid 
hair”  wars,  famine,  and  pestilence ;  for  if  they  produce  such 
effects  upon  the  earth,  we  might  with  equal  reason  believe 
that  they  produce  similar  effects  on  the  other  planets  of  our 
system  as  they  pass  along  in  their  course  towards  the  sun; 
and  this  would  lead  us  to  infer  that  the  inhabitants  of  all  the 
planetary  orbs  are  liable  to  the  same  disasters  and  calamities 
as  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  a  position  which  seems 
scarcely  consistent  with  the  boundless  benevolence  of  the 
Divine  mind. 

But  although  I  do  not  admit  the  conclusions  and  the  come¬ 
tary  influences  to  which  I  have  alluded,  I  am  far  from  assert¬ 
ing  that  comets  have  no  influence  whatever  over  our  globe  or 
its  surrounding  atmosphere.  The  universe  is  one  great  whole, 
and  all  its  parts,  however  remote,  must  be  supposed  to  have  a 
certain  relation  to  one  another ;  and  they  may  produce  an  in¬ 
fluence,  however  small  and  imperceptible,  on  each  other  at 
the  greatest  distances.  The  remotest  star  perceptible  to  the  eye 
may  produce  a  certain  physical  influence  on  our  globe,  though 
so  small  and  insensible  as  to  be  beyond  the  limits  of  the  nicest 
calculation ;  and  therefore  comets  which  sometimes  approach 
pretty  near  the  earth  may  produce  a  certain  sensible  effect 
upon  our  globe,  particularly  should  a  portion  of  their  im¬ 
mense  tails  at  any  time  sweep  along  the  higher  regions  of  our 
atmosphere.  But  what  special  influence  or  effects  they  may 
produce  on  the  physical  economy  of  our  terrestrial  system  it 
is  impossible  for  us  in  the  meantime  distinctly  to  ascertain, 
from  our  ignorance  of  the  constitution  of  those  mysterious 
bodies,  and  of  the  substances  of  which  they  are  composed. 
While  too  much  has  doubtless  been  attributed  to  the  influence 
of  comets,  it  would  be  verging  to  an  opposite  extreme  to 
maintain  that  they  can  produce  no  effect  at  all  on  our  earth 
and  atmosphere.  We  know  that  certain  celestial  bodies  pro¬ 
duce  a  powerful  influence  on  our  globe.  The  moon,  in  con¬ 
junction  with  the  solar  influence,  rules  the  ocean  and  perpe¬ 
tuates  the  regular  returns  of  ebb  and  flow.  Its  light  not  only 
cheers  our  winter  nights,  but  produces  a  variety  of  other 
influences  both  on  the  human  constitution,  the  atmosphere, 
and  on  the  productions  of  the  earth ;  and  there  may  be  many 
effects  produced  by  its  agency  with  which  we  are  as  yet  un- 


PROBABLE  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS. 


327 


acquainted.*  The  sun  not  only  diffuses  light  over  every 
region  of  the  earth  for  the  purpose  of  vision,  but  rays  or  ema¬ 
nations  invisible  to  our  sight  proceed  from  his  body,  which 
promote  evaporation,  the  growth  of  vegetables,  and  the  va¬ 
rious  degrees  of  temperature  which  prevail  throughout  the 
globe.  These  emanations  are  likewise  found  to  produce  cer¬ 
tain  chemical  effects,  to  dissolve  certain  combinations  of  oxy¬ 
gen,  and  to  give  polarity  to  the  magnetic  needle ;  and  many 
other  effects  of  which  we  are  ignorant  may  afterwards  be 
found  to  proceed  from  those  invisible  irradiations.  The 
larger  planets,  Jupiter  and  Saturn,  and  those  which  are  nearest 
to  us,  as  Venus  and  Mars,  may  likewise  produce  certain  effects 
on  our  globe,  both  in  virtue  of  their  attractive  power  and  of 
the  peculiar  nature  of  the  reflected  rays  they  transmit  to  the 
region  we  occupy. 

We  cannot  therefore  but  conclude,  that  comets  may  exert  a 
peculiar  influence  on  our  terrestrial  system  in  addition  to  that 
of  other  celestial  bodies,  and  different  from  it,  particularly 
those  whose  bulk  and  masses  are  considerable,  and  which 
approach  nearest  to  the  earth.  Their  light,  whether  native  or 
reflected,  appears  to  be  peculiar,  and  the  margin  of  their  im¬ 
mense  tails  may  occasionally  graze  our  atmosphere  when  we 
are  not  aware  of  it,  and  may  produce  a  peculiar  effect  different 
from  that  produced  by  the  other  bodies  of  our  system ;  but 

*  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  Martin,  in  his  “  Description  of  the  Western  Isles,” 
that  “  peat  dug  in  the  increase  of  the  moon  continues  moist  and  never 
burns  clear,  while  the  contrary  is  observed  of  that  cut  in  the  decrease ; 
and  that  earthen  dykes  thrown  up  in  the  latter  season  are  alone  found  to 
possess  stability.”  It  is  also  stated  as  a  fact,  that  if  an  animal  fresh  killed 
be  exposed  to  the  moon’s  rays,  it  will  in  a  few  hours  become  putrid,  while 
another  animal,  only  a  few  feet  distant,  protected  from  their  influence, 
will  not  be  in  the  least  affected ;  that  fruits  exposed  to  moonlight  have 
been  known  to  ripen  much  more  readily  ;  that  plants  bleached  in  the 
dark  recover  their  colour  from  the  beams  of  a  full  moon ;  and  that,  in 
South  America,  trees  cut  at  the  full  moon  split  almost  immediately,  as  if 
torn  asunder  by  great  external  force.  Fish  are  said  to  be  rapidly  decom¬ 
posed  in  the  West  Indies  when  taken  by  moonlight.” — Webb's  MS. 
Treatise  on  Comets.  Unless  such  alleged  facts  can  be  disproved ,  we  must 
admit  that  the  moon  may  have  a  certain  influence  in  such  cases,  though 
we  may  be  unable  to  explain  the  mode  by  which  it  is  effected.  In  Game’s 
“Letters  from  the  East”  we  are  told,  that  “the  effect  of  the  moonlight 
on  the  eyes  in  eastern  countries  is  singularly  injurious.  The  natives  tell 
you  always  to  cover  your  eyes  when  you  sleep  in  the  open  air.  The 
moon  here  really  strikes  or  affects  the  sight,  when  you  sleep  exposed  to 
it,  much  more  than  the  sun ;  a  fact  of  which  I  had  a  very  unpleasant 
proof  one  night,  and  took  care  to  guard  against  it  afterwards.  Indeed, 
the  sight  of  a  person  who  should  sleep  with  his  face  exposeu  to  the  moon 
at  night  would  soon  be  utterly  impaired  or  destroyed.”  This  ciicumstance 
strikingly  illustrates  the  expression  of  the  Psalmist — “The  sun  shall  not 
Strike  or  smite  thee  by  day,  nor  the  moon  by  night." 


328  PROBABLE  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS. 

what  that  special  effect  is  has  not  hitherto  been  determined ; 
for  the  mere  coincidences  of  certain  events  with  the  appear¬ 
ance  of  comets  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  owing  to  their  pecu¬ 
liar  influence,  unless  such  events  are  found  uniformly  to  hap¬ 
pen  on  the  apparition  of  a  comet,  and  that  too  throughout  a 
great  portion  of  the  earth.  This  subject  is  worthy  of  some 
attention ;  and  perhaps  future  observers,  by  more  accurate 
observations  than  have  hitherto  been  made,  may  throw  some 
light  on  an  influence  which  on  the  one  hand  has  been  per¬ 
haps  too  rashly  set  aside,  and  on  the  other  carried  to  a 
pitch  of  extravagance  beyond  the  line  of  sober  reason  and 
observation. 

Let  it  not  be  supposed  that,  in  admitting  that  comets  may 
have  an  influence  on  our  globe,  I  mean  to  give  the  least  coun¬ 
tenance  to  foolish  superstitions,  or  to  the  absurdities  of  astro¬ 
logy,  since  all  that  I  would  be  disposed  to  admit  in  the  pre¬ 
sent  case  is  purely  a  'physical  influence ;  an  influence  which 
may  exist,  although  we  have  not  yet  been  able  to  discriminate 
its  specific  effects.  The  most  eminent  philosophers  have  been 
disposed  to  admit  such  an  influence.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  sup¬ 
posed  that  “  the  atmospheres  and  tails  of  comets  may  supply 
the  planets  with  moisture,  which  is  continually  wasting  by 
the  growing  of  vegetables  out  of  water  and  turning  into 
earth ;”  and  that  from  the  same  source  may  be  derived  “  the 
purest  part  of  our  air,  which  is  requisite  for  the  existence  of 
living  beings.”  These  opinions,  indeed,  cannot  be  proved, 
and  they  are  evidently  untenable ;  but  they  shew  that  that 
great  philosopher  admitted  the  influence  of  comets.  M.  Arago, 
although  he  scouts  the  vulgar  idea  of  comets  being  the  cause 
of  most  calamitous  events,  yet  he  admits  that,  “not  only 
cometary  matter  may  fall  into  our  atmosphere,  but  that  this 
phenomenon  is  of  a  nature  to  occur  frequently,  and  may  pos¬ 
sibly  produce  those  epidemic  diseases  which  have  been  attri¬ 
buted  to  it.” 

A  variety  of  questions  has  been  started  respecting  cometary 
action  and  influence,  beside  those  to  which  we  have  now 
alluded.  It  has  been  a  question  whether  we  ought  to  have 
recourse  to  the  action  of  a  comet  to  account  for  the  rigour  of 
the  climate  of  North  America  ?  It  is  found  that  in  the  north¬ 
ern  regions  of  America,  the  climate  in  the  same  latitude  is 
much  colder  than  in  Europe.  To  account  for  this,  Dr.  Hai¬ 
ley  supposed  that  a  comet  had  formerly  struck  the  earth 
obliquely,  and  changed  the  position  of  its  axis  of  rotation.  In 
consequence  of  that  event,  the  North  Pole,  which  had  been 
originally  very  near  to  Hudson’s  Bay,  was  changed  to  a  more 


TROBABLE  INFLUENCE  OF  COMETS.  329 

easterly  position ;  but  the  countries  which  it  abandoned  had 
been  so  long  a  time  and  so  deeply  frozen,  that  vestiges  still 
remain  of  its  ancient  polar  rigour,  and  that  a  long  series  of 
years  would  be  required  for  the  solar  action  to  impart  to  the 
northern  parts  of  the  new  continent  the  climate  of  their  pre¬ 
sent  geographical  position.  But  we  have  no  proof  that  a 
comet  has  ever  struck  the  earth,  or  that  its  concussion  would 
have  the  effect  to  change  the  direction  of  the  terrestrial  axis. 
Besides,  it  is  well  known  that  the  Asiatic  coast  is  equally 
cold  in  the  same  latitudes  as  the  Atlantic  shores  of  North 
America. 

It  has  likewise  been  a  subject  of  inquiry,  whether  the  de¬ 
pression  of  the  soil  of  a  great  part  of  Asia  has  been  pro¬ 
duced  by  the  shock  of  a  comet ;  and  whether  Siberia  ever 
experienced  a  sudden  change  by  a  similar  event  ?  This  latter 
inquiry  has  been  suggested  by  the  circumstance  of  the  bones 
of  elephants,  rhinoceroses,  and  other  animals  peculiar  to  the 
torrid  zone,  having  been  found  embedded  in  the  strata  of  that 
country,  which  has  led  to  the  supposition  that  Siberia  was,  at 
some  remote  period,  comprised  within  the  tropics.  But  there 
is  no  proof,  nor  even  probability,  that  the  action  of  a  comet 
was  concerned  in  either  case.  It  has  also  been  supposed  that 
the  small  planets,  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  the  supposed 
fragments  of  a  large  planet,  may  have  been  broken  to  pieces 
by  the  shock  of  a  comet.  The  circumstance  that  two  of  these 
planets,  Ceres  and  Pallas,  are  encompassed  with  an  atmo¬ 
sphere  of  great  density  and  elevation,  has  been  brought  for¬ 
ward  as  a  presumptive  proof  of  the  reality  of  such  a  concus¬ 
sion,  and  that  the  cometary  atmosphere,  not  being  liable  to 
destruction  by  the  percussion,  was  imparted  to  these  planets* 
But  when  we  consider  the  very  small  density  of  comets,  it 
appears  not  at  all  probable  that  even  a  direct  concussion  from 
such  a  body  would  have  produced  such  an  effect,  although  it 
might  have  caused  a  considerable  derangement  of  the  physical 
constitution  of  the  planet.  Besides,  this  hypothesis  does  not 
account  for  the  remarkable  fact  that  Vesta  and  Juno  exhibit 
no  traces  of  an  atmosphere  which,  in  consistency  with  the 
supposition,  ought  to  have  been  imparted  to  them  by  the 
comet,  as  well  as  to  Ceres  and  Pallas.  On  the  whole,  we 
have  no  direct  or  satisfactory  proofs  that  comets  have  ever 
come  in  direct  contact  with  our  globe,  or  that  they  have  pro¬ 
duced  any  considerable  derangements  throughout  the  plane¬ 
tary  system  ;  and  whatever  specific  influence  they  may  pro¬ 
duce  on  our  earth  and  atmosphere  must  be  deduced  from 
future  observations. 


28* 


330  INHABITABILITY  OP  COMETS. 


ON  THE  INHABITABILITY  OF  COMETS. 

Some  philosophers  have  been  disposed  to  doubt  whether 
the  constitution  of  comets  be  at  all  fitted  for  the  abode  of 
rational  beings,  especially  when  we  take  into  consideration 
the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  to  which  they  would  be  sub¬ 
jected  in  their  long  and  extensive  career.  Mr.  Whiston  sup¬ 
posed  that  on  this  account  they  could  not  be  the  abodes  of 
happiness,  and  therefore  was  led  to  believe  that  they  were  the 
places  of  punishment  for  the  wicked,  who  were  alternately 
wheeled  into  regions  of  intolerable  heat,  and  afterwards  ex¬ 
posed  to  all  the  rigours  of  the  most  intense  cold.  But  when 
we  consider  the  boundless  beneficence  of  the  Divine  Being, 
and  that  w  his  tender  mercies  are  displayed  over  all  his  works,” 
we  cannot  for  a  moment  suppose  that  so  vast  a  number  of 
these  bodies  would  be  created  for  such  an  end.  The  cele¬ 
brated  Lambert,  on  the  other  hand,  considers  comets  as  con¬ 
stituting  some  of  the  most  splendid  regions  of  the  universe, 
and  that  their  inhabitants  are  permitted  to  contemplate  the 
scene  of  nature  on  a  scale  of  grandeur  far  surpassing  that 
which  is  presented  to  the  population  of  the  planets. 

Many  of  the  comets  which  exhibit  no  signs  of  a  nucleus 
appear  to  be  composed  of  very  light,  transparent,  and  gaseous 
substances ;  and  therefore  it  is  not  very  probable  that  such 
bodies  are  inhabited.  Comets  in  this  state  are  supposed,  by 
some  philosophers,  to  be  only  approaching  to  a  state  of  con¬ 
solidation.  But  as  to  those  which  have  a  large  and  solid  nu¬ 
cleus,  there  appears  to  be  no  physical  impossibility,  nor  even 
improbability,  of  their  being  the  abodes  of  sentient  and  intel¬ 
lectual  beings,  as  well  as  the  other  moving  bodies  of  our  sys¬ 
tem.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  to  which  comets  are 
supposed  to  be  subjected  forms  the  principal  argument  against 
the  opinion  that  these  bodies  are  inhabited.  But  in  reply  to 
such  an  objection  it  may  be  stated,  that  we  have  no  proof  that 
heat  or  cold  depend  altogether  on  the  distance  of  a  body  from 
the  sun,  but  most  probably  on  certain  circumstances  connected 
with  the  constitution  of  the  body  itself.  Besides,  it  is  a  fact, 
that  in  the  heating  of  bodies  there  is  a  certain  point,  beyond 
which  their  temperature  can  never  be  raised ;  as,  for  instance, 
in  the  case  of  water,  which  cannot  be  heated  beyond  the  point 
of  212°  of  Fahrenheit’s  thermometer;  and  therefore  the  sur¬ 
face  of  a  comet  may  have  a  certain  point  beyond  which  its 
temperature  can  never  be  elevated,  even  at  its  nearest  approach 
to  the  sun.  u  When,  by  any  means,”  says  Mr.  Milne,  w  the 


INHABITABILITY  OE  COMETS. 


331 


density  of  bodies  is  made  to  change  by  a  process,  whether  of 
rarefaction,  on  the  one  hand,  or  of  condensation,  on  the  other, 
they  are  always  found  to  undergo  a  corresponding  diminution 
or  increase  of  temperature.  When,  therefore,  in  the  approach 
of  a  comet  to  the  sun,  all  the  parts  of  its  nebulous  envelope 
and  tail  which  in  the  remoter  regions  of  its  course  had  been 
gathered  close  about  the  head,  become  expanded  and  attenuated, 
a  very  large  proportion  of  the  solar  heat,  which  would  other¬ 
wise  have  passed  into  the  nucleus,  and  contributed  to  raise  its 
temperature  to  a  certain  point,  is  carried  off  by  the  envelope 
and  tail,  in  order  to  preserve  an  equilibrium  among  the  seve¬ 
ral  parts.”  Mr.  Milne  proves  that,  if  we  assume  that  the 
nebulous  matter  is  elevated  about  30  times  its  former  height, 
the  diminution  of  density  corresponding  with  the  increase  of 
volume  will  amount  to  27,000,  and  that  a  quantity  of  caloric 
will  be  abstracted  corresponding  to  1,215,000°  of  Fahrenheit. 
He  further  shews  that,  u  when  the  comet  retires  towards  its 
aphelion,  where  the  heat  of  the  sun  becomes  so  much  weak¬ 
ened  on  account  of  the  distance,  the  condensation  of  the 
nebulous  matter  forming  the  tail  and  envelope  serves  not  only 
to  furnish  the  nucleus  with  continual  supplies  from  the  heat 
acquired  at  the  perihelion,  but  even  to  render  the  warming 
influence  of  the  solar  rays  much  more  efficacious  than  at  a 
less  remote  part  of  the  comet’s  orbit.”* 

The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  therefore,  in  comets  may 
not  be  so  great  as  at  first  view  we  should  be  apt  to  imagine, 
and  their  constitution  may  be  such  as  is  not  incompatible 
with  the  idea  that  they  are  inhabited  by  animated  beings.  We 
are  not,  however,  to  suppose  that  the  constitution  of  beings 
like  man  would  be  adapted  to  the  circumstances  and  changes 
to  which  comets  are  subjected,  nor  is  such  a  supposition  ne¬ 
cessary  in  order  to  prove  their  inhabitability.  For  in  the  case 
of  all  worlds  and  beings,  we  must  necessarily  admit  that  the 
Creator  has  adapted  the  constitution  of  the  inhabitants  to  the 
nature  of  the  habitation.  We  find  a  striking  variety  in  this 
respect  in  the  constitution  of  the  numerous  orders  of  sentient 
beings  that  people  the  globe  on  which  we  live  •  and  a  similar 
variety  doubtless  exists  in  the  peculiar  constitutions  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  different  planets,  and  of  all  the  worlds  in 
the  universe.  For  any  thing  we  can  prove  to  the  contrary, 
some  of  the  comets  may  be  the  abodes  of  greater  happiness 
than  is  to  be  found  in  our  sublunary  world,  and  may  be  peo¬ 
pled  w  ith  intelligences  of  a  higher  order  than  the  race  of  man 


*  Mike,  Prize  Essay  on  Comets,  Part  IV. 


332  DIVERSIFIED  PROSPECTS  FROM  COMETS. 

In  consequence  of  the  extensive  regions  through  which  they 
move,  and  the  variety  of  objects  which  will  successively  burst 
*  upon  their  view,  their  prospects  of  the  scenes  of  the  universe 
will  be  far  more  diversified  and  expansive  than  those  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  planets. 

At  one  period  they  will  behold  the  stupendous  globe  of  the 
sun  filling  a  great  portion  of  their  celestial  hemisphere,  and 
be  enabled  to  contemplate  the  august  and  splendid  operations 
going  on  upon  its  surface  and  in  its  luminous  atmosphere,  a 
spectacle  of  grandeur  which  must  be  beyond  conception  sub¬ 
lime  and  overpowering.  At  another  period  they  will  be  ena¬ 
bled  to  survey,  at  no  great,  distance,  the  phenomenon  and 
economy  of  some  of  the  planetary  worlds.  The  comet  of 
1744  passed  within  180  terrestrial  diameters,  or  1,440,000 
miles  of  the  earth’s  surface,  at  which  time  its  inhabitants  (if 
any)  would  enjoy  an  interesting  view  of  our  earth  and  moon, 
with  their  diversified  motions,  and  the  general  aspect  of  their 
surfaces.  The  same  comet  twice  traversed  the  system  of  Jupi¬ 
ter’s  satellites,  when  the  magnificent  globe  of  Jupiter  would 
appear  at  least  300  times  larger  than  the  moon  appears  to  us, 
and  when  its  satellites  would  likewise  present  a  very  large  and 
splendid  appearance.  From  such  a  position,  even  with  eyes 
such  as  ours,  assisted  by  telescopes,  all  the  diversity  of  surface 
of  this  huge  globe,  as  presented  in  its  diurnal  rotation,  with 
the  changes  of  its  belts,  and  the  peculiar  scenery  of  its  satel¬ 
lites,  would  be  distinctly  perceived.  Above  all,  the  system  of 
Saturn  will  present  a  most  magnificent  spectacle  to  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  a  comet  when  it  passes  through  the  regions  in  its  imme¬ 
diate  vicinity.  Its  expansive  rings,  filling  a  considerable  por¬ 
tion  of  the  visible  firmament,  their  rapid  rotation  round  the 
planet,  the  vast  globe  of  Saturn  itself,  and  the  numerous  satel¬ 
lites  which  accompany  it,  in  all  their  different  phases  and  rapid 
motions,  will  present  a  scene  at  once  diversified  and  sublime. 
To  the  inhabitants  of  comets,  many  vast  bodies  within  the  range 
of  our  system  may  be  visible,  which  we  have  never  yet  disco¬ 
vered,  and  which  may  never  be  perceptible  from  the  region  we 
occupy.  Traversing  vast  regions  of  space  far  beyond  the 
orbit  of  Uranus,  and  perhaps  approaching  to  the  nearest  stars, 
worlds  may  be  presented  to  their  view  of  which  we  have  no 
conception,  and  the  planets  which  revolve  around  other  suns 
may  be  distinguishable  in  the  remoter  parts  of  their  course. 
Enjoying  such  diversified  and  extensive  prospects  of  the  ope¬ 
rations  of  Omnipotence,  the  intellectual  beings  who  reside  on 
those  bodies  will  acquire  more  expansive  views  than  the  inha¬ 
bitants  of  the  earth  of  the  vast  scene  of  nature  and  of  the 


EXCURSIONS  OF  COMETS. 


333 


perfections  of  that  All-wise  and  Almighty  Being  whose  power 
brought  into  existence,  and  whose  incessant  energy  sustains  in 
being,  all  the  worlds  in  the  universe. 

The  number  of  comets  is  supposed  by  some  astronomers  to 
amount  to  several  millions ;  and  if  so,  they  must  frequently 
pass  near  each  other  in  their  long  eccentric  courses,  and  con¬ 
sequently  the  beings  connected  with  them  will  have  their 
prospects  of  other  worlds  wonderfully  diversified  and  con¬ 
tinually  expanding.  It  is  likewise  supposed  that  comets  some¬ 
times  extend  their  excursions  to  other  suns.  On  this  point 
M.  Lambert  has  the  following  remarks  :  u  I  shall  suppose  that 
a  globe  in  our  system  begins  to  describe  a  parabola.  If  this 
curve  closes  and  returns  into  itself,  the  globe  will  remain  with 
us,  and  acquire  a  periodical  motion  round  the  sun.  If,  on  the 
contrary,  it  extends  its  limits,  so  as  to  become  an  hyperbola, 
the  globe  will  recede  more  and  more  from  the  sun,  and  leave 
us,  never  to  return.  Were  we  to  pursue  the  fugitive  in  idea, 
we  should  see  it  perhaps  at  the  end  of  some  thousands  of 
years  flit  along  the  frontiers  of  our  system  and  dive  into  a 
neighbouring  world.  The  central  body  of  this  world  would 
then  exercise  its  attraction  over  the  new  visitor,  and  give  a 
curvature  to  his  orbit.  From  that  moment  one  of  two  things 
would  happen.  Either  its  path  would  change  into  an  ellipse, 
in  which  case  its  travels  would  be  at  an  end,  and  it  would 
proceed  to  make  regular  revolutions  round  the  dominant  star 
of  that  system ;  or,  perhaps,  after  passing  its  perihelion,  it 
would  again  resume  its  hyperbolic  progress,  and  approaching 
the  asymptote,  withdraw  in  a  straight  line,  and  proceed  to 
visit  other  worlds.  Thus  we  can  conceive  comets  which,  be¬ 
ing  attached  to  no  particular  system,  are  in  common  to  all,  and 
■which,  roaming  from  one  world  to  another,  make  the  tour  of 
the  universe.  I  ask  why,  in  the  infinite  variety  which  the 
Creator  has  introduced  into  his  works,  such  globes  should 
not  have  a  place  ?  Their  destination  may  embrace  the  wisest 
purposes,  concerning  which  we  may  be  allowed  to  speculate.” 

This  celebrated  philosopher  concludes  his  remarks  on 
comets  with  the  following  reflections,  which,  although  some¬ 
what  fanciful,  may  not  be  unworthy  of  the  attention  of  the 
reader : — 

u  I  love  to  figure  to  myself  those  travelling  globes,  peopled 
with  astronomers,  who  are  stationed  there  for  the  express  pur¬ 
pose  of  contemplating  nature  on  a  large,  as  we  contemplate  it 
on  a  small  scale.  Their  moveable  observatory  cruising  from 
sun  to  sun,  carries  them  in  succession  through  every  different 
point  of  view,  places  them  in  a  situation  to  survey  all,  to  de- 


334  MOTIONS  AND  ORBITS  OF  COMETS. 

termine  the  position  and  motion  of  each  star,  to  measure  the 
orbits  of  the  planets  and  comets  which  revolve  round  them, 
to  observe  how  particular  are  resolved  into  general  laws,  in 
one  word,  to  get  acquainted  with  the  whole  as  well  as  the  de¬ 
tail.  We  may  suppose  that  their  year  is  measured  by  the 
length  of  their  route  from  one  sun  to  another.  Winter  falls  in 
the  middle  of  their  journey ;  each  passage  of  a  perihelion  is 
the  return  of  summer;  each  introduction  to  a  new  world  is 
the  revival  of  spring ;  and  the  period  of  quitting  it  is  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  their  autumn.  The  place  of  their  abode  is  ac¬ 
commodated  to  all  their  distances  from  the  fixed  stars,  and  the 
different  degrees  of  their  heat  make  the  fruits  and  vegetables  de¬ 
signed  for  their  use  blossom  and  ripen.  Happy  intelligences, 
how  excellent  must  be  the  frame  of  your  nature  !  Myriads  of 
ages  pass  away  with  you  like  so  many  days  with  the  inhabit¬ 
ants  of  the  earth.  Our  largest  measurements  are  your  infinitely 
small  quantities ;  our  millions  the  elements  of  your  arithmetic  , 
we  breathe  but  a  moment;  our  lot  is  error  and  death,  yours 
science  and  immortality.  All  this  is  agreeable  to  the  analogy 
of  the  works  of  creation.  The  frame  of  the  universe  furnishes 
matter  of  contemplation  as  a  whole  as  well  as  in  each  of  its 
parts.  There  is  not  a  point  that  does  not  merit  our  observa¬ 
tion  ;  this  magnificent  fabric  is  portioned  out  in  detached  parts 
to  created  beings ;  but  it  is  in  the  unity  of  the  whole  that 
sovereign  perfection  shines ;  and  can  we  suppose  that  this 
whole  has  no  observers  ?  The  imagination,  indeed,  after  so 
sublime  a  flight,  may  be  astonished  at  its  own  temerity ;  but, 
in  short,  here  the  cause  is  proportioned  to  the  effect,  and  there 
is  nothing  great  or  small  in  immensity  and  eternity.'” 

ON  THE  MOTIONS  AND  ORBITS  OF  COMETS. 

When  a  comet  comes  within  the  limits  of  our  view,  its  ap¬ 
parent  motion  is  from  east  to  west,  and  it  generally  appears 
to  rise  and  set  like  most  of  the  other  heavenly  bodies.  This 
motion,  however,  like  that  of  the  diurnal  motion  of  the  sun 
and  planets,  is  only  apparent ,  and  arises  from  the  rotation  of 
the  earth  upon  its  axis.  Besides  this  apparent  motion,  it  has 
a  real  and  proper  motion  of  its  own,  by  which  it  is  continu¬ 
ally  shifting  its  place  in  the  heavens,  in  conformity  to  the 
nature  of  the  orbit  in  which  it  moves.  The  proper  course 
of  a  comet  may  be  found  by  observing  every  night  its  distance 
from  two  fixed  stars  whose  longitudes  and  latitudes  are  known; 
or  by  finding  its  altitude  when  in  the  same  azimuth  with  two 
known  fixed  stars;  or  by  noting  four  fixed  stars  in  the  point 


ORBITS  OF  COMETS. 


336 


of  intersection  of  the  two  lines  connecting  which  the  comet  is 
found.  If  the  places  of  the  comet,  as  thus  observed  every 
night,  be  marked  on  the  celestial  globe,  a  line  drawn  through 
them  will  represent  the  comet’s  path  among  the  stars  ;  a  great 
circle  drawn  through  three  distant  places  will  nearly  shew  the 
way  it  has  to  go.  If  it  be  continued  till  it  intersect  the  eclip¬ 
tic,  it  will  shew  nearly  the  place  of  the  node  and  the  inclina¬ 
tion  of  the  orbit  to  the  ecliptic.”*  There  is,  however,  a 
practical  difficulty  which  perplexes  the  observer  in  attempting 
to  ascertain  the  true  form  of  a  cometary  orbit.  A  comet  re¬ 
mains  so  short  a  time  in  sight,  and  describes  so  small  a  part 
of  its  course  within  our  view,  that,  from  observation  alone, 
without  the  assistance  of  hypothesis,  we  should  not  be  able  to 
determine  the  nature  of  its  path.  The  only  part  of  the  course 
of  a  comet  that  can  ever  be  visible  is  a  portion  throughout 
which  the  ellipse,  the  parabola,  and  hyperbola,  so  closely  re¬ 
semble  each  other  that  no  observations  can  be  obtained  with 
sufficient  accuracy  to  enable  us  to  distinguish  them.  The 
hypothesis  most  conformable  to  analogy  is,  that  the  comet 
moves  in  an  ellipse,  having  the  sun  in  one  of  the  foci,  and 
that  the  radius  vector  from  the  sun  to  the  comet  describes 
areas  proportional  to  the  times,  according  to  the  law  observed 
by  the  planets.  If  it  be  supposed  that  the  comet  describes  an 
ellipse  or  a  parabola,  in  conformity  to  the  laws  of  Kepler, 
then  from  three  geocentric  places,  known  by  observation,  the 
orbit  may  be  determined. 

The  orbits  of  the  planets,  although  elliptical,  approach  very 
nearly  to  circles ;  but  those  of  comets  are  extremely  eccen¬ 
tric,  and  form  very  elongated  ellipses.  The  orbit  of  Halley’s 
comet  is  four  times  longer  than  it  is  broad,  and  the  orbits  of 
those  comets  whose  periodical  revolution  exceeds  a  hundred 
or  a  thousand  years  must  be  still  more  elongated  and  eccen¬ 
tric.  The  following  figure  represents  the  orbit  of  Halley’s 
comet  nearly  in  its  exact  proportions.  E  C  represents  the 


Fig.  82. 


*  Dr.  0.  Gregory’s  “  Treatise  on  Astronomy. 


336 


ORBITS  OF  COMETS. 


length  of  the  ellipsis  in  which  it  performs  its  revolution ;  E 
D ,  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  somewhat  larger  than  it  ought  to  be 
in  proportion  to  the  comet- s  orbit;  *$,  the  sun  in  one  of  the 
foci  of  the  ellipse ;  Sat.,  the  proportional  distance  of  the 
planet  Saturn  from  the  sun ;  and  £7,  the  proportional  distance 
of  Uranus.  The  orbit  of  this  comet  extends  to  nearly  double 
the  distance  of  Uranus  : — 

Fig.  83  represents  so  much  of  the  trajectory  of  the  comet 


Fig.  83. 


ORBITS  OF  COMETS. 


337 


V  APheli<?ni:^ 


Orbit 


/JanX 

iwo 


fe  ?/SUNy 


Perth  elioii 


Repre  sentaiiom  of  the  Orbit  of 

1  ?-,•  ■  ■■■■':■  ■.  V;  '■ 

THE  COM  E  T  OF  183  2, 

with  the  relative 

PO  SIT  I O  N  O  f .  T  H  E  ORBIT  OFT  H  E  E  A  RTH 


of  1680  as  it  passed  through  while  visible  to  the  inhabitants 
of  our  globe,  as  delineated  in  Newton’s  w  Principia It 
shews  also  the  tail  as  it  appeared  on  the  days  mentioned  in 
the  figure.  Like  that  of  other  comets,  it  increased  in  length 
and  brightness  as  it  came  nearer  the  sun,  and  grew  shorter 

Fig.  84. 


VOL 


VIII. 


338 


NUMBER  OF  COMETS. 


and  fainter  as  it  went  further  from  that  luminary  and  from  the 
earth,  till  the  comet  was  too  distant  to  be  visible.  This  comet 
was  observed  in  the  morning  from  November  4,  to  November 
25,  1680,  in  its  descent  towards  its  perihelion  at  P  ;  and  its 
positions  on  the  17th,  21st,  and  25th  of  that  month  are  here 
exhibited.  It  appears  to  have  passed  its  perihelion  sometime 
between  the  25th  of  November  and  the  12th  of  December. 
Its  positions  on  the  12th,  and  21st,  and  29th  of  December, 
and  on  the  5th  and  25th  of  January,  1681,  after  returning 
from  its  perihelion,  as  seen  in  the  evening,  are  marked  in  the 
figure.  The  orbit  of  this  comet  must  be  extremely  elongated, 
as  its  return  is  not  expected  for  more  than  400  years  to  come. 

Fig.  81,  taken  from  Arago’s  u  Scientific  Notices  of  Comets,” 
exhibits  a  representation  of  the  orbit  of  Biela’s  comet,  with 
the  relative  position  of  the  orbit  to  the  earth.  It  shews  both 
the  space  and  the  position  it  occupies  in  the  solar  system,  and 
the  points  where  its  orbit  intersects  all  the  planetary  orbits 
through  which  it  passes.  It  exhibits  its  course  at  its  return 
in  November,  1832,  and  the  path  it  describes  till  its  subse¬ 
quent  return  in  1839.  From  this  figure  it  is  seen  that  its 
perihelion  lies  between  the  orbits  of  the  earth  and  Venus, 
and  that  its  aphelion  extends  beyond  the  orbit  of  Jupiter.  It 
would  arrive  at  that  point  which  is  most  distant  from  the 
earth,  in  the  spring  of  1836,  and  will  probably  return  to  it  in 
January,  1843.  The  nearest  approach  to  the  earth  of  this 
comet  was  51  millions  of  miles ;  its  nearest  approach  to  the 
sun,  83  millions its  mean  distance  from  the  sun,  or  half  the 
longest  axis  of  its  orbit,  337  millions ;  and  it  is  507  millions 
of  miles  nearer  the  sun  in  its  perihelion  than  in  its  aphelion. 
To  be  able  to  calculate  and  predict  the  future  positions  and 
appearances  of  such  a  body  evinces  an  accuracy  of  observa¬ 
tion,  and  a  degree  of  perfection  of  astronomical  calculus ,  which 
may  justly  challenge  admiration,  and  which  should  lead  those 
who  are  unacquainted  with  the  minutiae  of  astronomy  to  re¬ 
ceive  with  confidence  the  results  which  have  been  deduced  by 
those  who  have  devoted  themselves  to  celestial  investigations. 

SUPPOSED  NUMBER  OF  COMETS. 

It  is  laid  down  as  a  principle  by  M.  Lambert,  that  as  the 
world  is  the  expression  of  the  perfections  of  God,  we  must 
believe  that  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are  inhabited,  and  a  that 
universal  space  is  replenished  with  as  many  globes  as  it  can 
contain so  as  to  move  with  freedom  and  security  within  the 
circumference  of  the  universe.  Hence  he  infers,  that  the  most 


NUMBER  OF  COMETS. 


339 


perfect  plan  of  our  system  will  be  that  into  which  enters  the 
greatest  number  of  orbits,  all  separated  from  one  another,  and 
which  in  no  one  point  intersects  the  other ;  and  that  the  orbits 
of  comets  correspond  to  this  end  better  than  those  of  the 
planets,  as  an  immensely  greater  number  of  elliptic  or  come¬ 
tary  orbits  can  be  introduced  into  the  system  than  of  those 
which  are  circular.  On  the  ground  of  the  number  of  comets 
which  have  hitherto  been  observed,  and  on  certain  mathema¬ 
tical  considerations,  he  instituted  calculations  which  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  “at  least  five  hundred  millions  of  comets” 
might  be  contained  within  the  limits  of  the  solar  system.  On 
this  point,  M.  Arago  reasons  in  the  following  manner : — The 
number  of  comets  really  known,  whose  perihelion  distance 
is  less  than  the  radius  of  the  orbit  of  Mercury,  amounts  t® 
thirty.  This  radius,  and  that  of  the  orbit  of  Uranus,  are  in 
the  ratio  of  1  to  49 ;  and  the  volumes  of  two  spheres  are  to 
each  other  as  the  cubes  of  their  radii.  If,  therefore,  we  adopt 
the  hypothesis  of  the  equal  distribution  of  comets  in  all  the 
regions  of  our  system,  and  calculate  the  number  of  those 
luminaries  whose  perihelions  are  included  in  a  sphere  whose 
radius  is  the  distance  of  Uranus  from  the  sun,  the  following 
proposition  would  be  supplied  to  us  : — As  the  cube  of  1  :  to 
the  cube  of  49  :  :  so  is  30  :  to  the  number  of  comets  sought;— 
or  thus,  l3  :  493  :  :  30;  or,  1  :  117,649  :  :  30  :  3,529,470. 
Thus  within  the  orbit  of  Uranus,  the  solar  system  should  con¬ 
tain  more  than  three  millions  and  a  half  of  comets ;  or,  we 
should  rather  find  the  double  of  that  the  true  number,  when 
we  consider  that  in  this  calculation  the  term  which  represents 
the  number  of  comets  contained  within  the  sphere  of  Mercury 
is  certainly  much  too  small,  and  that  it  ought  to  be  conceded 
that  the  light  of  day,  our  clouded  skies,  and  a  too  southerly 
declination,  removes  from  our  sight  not  fewer  than  every 
alternate  one  of  these  bodies.  Taking  these  circumstances 
into  consideration,  there  should,  on  the  same  hypothesis,  be 
seven  millions  of  comets. 

The  actual  number  of  comets,  however,  which  have  been 
observed  since  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  does 
not  amount  to  above  seven  or  eight  hundred ;  but  when  we 
consider  that  in  the  earlier  ages  of  astronomy.,  and  likewise 
in  more  recent  periods  before  the  invention  of  the  telescope, 
only  large  and  conspicuous  comets  were  noticed,  and  that  the 
greater  number,  in  all  probability,  had  their  visible  courses  in 
the  southern  regions  of  the  heavens,  and  of  whose  appearance 
we  have  no  records,  it  will  easily  be  conceived  that  their 
actual  number  must  amount  to  at  least  many  thousands. 


340 


APPARENT  MAGNITUDE  OF  COMETS. 


Since  particular  attention  has  been  directed  to  the  astronomy 
of  comets,  and  since  the  number  of  observers  have  increased, 
scarcely  a  year  has  passed  without  the  observance  of  one  or 
two  of  these  bodies,  and  sometimes  even  two  or  three  have 
appeared  at  once.  In  the  year  1825,  no  less  than  four  comets 
made  their  appearance  within  the  space  of  three  months. 
The  first  of  these  was  discovered  by  M.  Gambart,  at  Mar¬ 
seilles,  on  May  9,  in  the  head  of  Cassiopeia ;  the  second,  by 
M.  Valz,  at  Nismes,  on  July  13,  in  Taurus ;  the  third  by  M. 
Pono,  at  Florence,  on  August  9,  in  Auriga ;  the  fourth,  or 
Encke’s  comet,  about  the  months  of  July  or  August.  But  it 
is  evident  that  multitudes  must  escape  all  observation,  by  rea¬ 
son  of  their  paths  traversing  only  that  portion  of  the  heavens 
which  is  visible  in  the  daytime. 

The  number  of  comets  whose  paths  have  been  particularly 
observed  during  their  visible  course  is  about  137.  Of  these, 
sixty-nine  moved  in  a  direct  course,  or  according  to  the  order 
of  the  signs,  as  the  planets  do,  and  sixty  eight  in  a  retrograde 
direction.  As  to  the  distances  of  their  perihelions  from  the 
sun  and  the  earth,  thirty  were  found  to  have  their  perihelions 
between  the  orbit  of  Mercury  and  the  sun  ;  forty-four,  between 
the  orbits  of  Mercury  and  Venus;  thirty-four,  between  the 
orbits  of  Venus  and  the  earth  ;  twenty-three  between  the  orbits 
of  the  Earth  and  Mars ;  six,  between  the  orbits  of  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  Beyond  the  orbit  of  Jupiter  no  comets  have 
been  perceived ;  and  it  is  seldom  they  can  be  seen  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Mars.  As  to  the  inclination  of  their  orbits ,  nine 
comets  have  been  observed  whose  orbits  incline  to  the  ecliptic 
from  0°  to  10° ;  thirteen,  from  10°  to  20° ;  ten,  from  20°  to  30° ; 
seventeen,  from  30°  to  40° ;  fourteen,  from  40°  to  50°  ;  twen¬ 
ty-three,  from  50°  to  60° ;  seventeen,  from  60°  to  70° ;  nine¬ 
teen,  from  70°  to  80° ;  fifteen,  from  80°  to  90°.  It  appears, 
then,  that  these  137  comets  had  their  orbits  inclined  in  almost 
every  degree  to  the  ecliptic ;  and  it  is  probable  that  this  is  the 
case  with  all  the  other  comets  which  belong  to  the  system. 

Although  comets  generally  emit  an  obscure  light,  yet  some 
have  been  seen  whose  splendour  was  so  great  as  to  be  visible 
in  daylight,  even  at  noon,  and  while  the  sun  was  shining  in 
all  its  brightness.  Such,  it  is  said,  were  the  comets  which 
appeared  in  1402  and  1532,  and  that  which  appeared  a  little 
before  the  assassination  of  Caesar,  and  which  was  supposed, 
after  that  event  happened,  to  have  been  an  omen  or  prelude 
of  his  death.  It  has  likewise  been  stated,  that  comets  have 
appeared  of  such  a  magnitude  as  to  have  eclipsed  the  sun. 
Seneca  relates  that  such  a  coincidence  happened  sixty  years 


MOTIONS  OF  COMETS. 


341 


before  Christ,  when  a  large  comet  was  actually  observed  very 
near  the  sun.*  The  same  author  relates  that  a  comet  which 
appeared  in  the  time  of  the  Emperor  Nero  was  not  inferior 
in  apparent  magnitude  to  the  sun  himself  and  the  comet 
which  Hevelius  observed  in  the  year  1652  did  not  seem  to 
be  less  than  the  moon,  though  it  was  deficient  in  splendour. 

Comets  traverse  all  parts  of  the  heavens ;  and,  as  already 
noticed,  their  orbits  have  every  possible  inclination  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic.  They  are,  however,  governed  in  their 
motions  by  the  same  physical  laws  which  regulate  the  mo¬ 
tions  of  the  planets.  Their  periodical  times  are  to  the  pe¬ 
riodical  times  of  the  planets,  in  the  sesquipiicate  ratio  of  their 
principal  axes.  Comets,  therefore,  being  for  the  most  part 
beyond  the  planetary  regions,  and  on  that  account  describing 
orbits  with  much  larger  major  axes  than  the  planets,  revolve 
more  slowly.  Thus,  if  the  major  axis  of  a  comet’s  orbit  be 
four  times  as  long  as  that  of  the  orbit  of  Uranus,  the  time  of 
the  comet’s  period  would  be  to  that  of  the  planet  as  8-  :  1 ;  its 
periodic  time  would  therefore  be  nearly  672  years ;  that  is, 
8  X  84  =  the  period  of  Uranus  —  672.  Although  comets 
move  with  great  rapidity  when  near  their  perihelion,  yet  in 
the  remote  parts  of  their  course  their  motion  must  be  propor¬ 
tionally  slow. 

The  motions  of  comets  when  approaching  the  sun  are  in 
certain  cases  extremely  rapid.  The  comet  which  wras  ob¬ 
served  by  Regiomontanus,  in  1472,  was  said  to  have  passed 
through  40  degrees  of  a  great  circle  in  twenty-four  hours. 
Brydone,  in  his  u  Tour  through  Sicily,”  relates  that  he  ob¬ 
served  a  comet  at  Palermo,  in  June  and  July,  1770,  which 
moved  through  50  degrees  of  a  great  circle  in  twenty-four 
hours.  At  midnight,  on  the  30th  of  June,  it  passed  the  zenith 
of  Palermo  (latitude  38°  10'),  and  the  next  day,  July  1,  at  40 
minutes  mast  eight  p.m.,  it  passed  4  degrees  to  the  east  of  the 
polar  star.  He  remarks  that,  w  supposing  it  at  the  distance  of 
the  sun,  at  this  rate  of  travelling,  it  would  go  round  the  earth’s 
orbit  in  less  than  a  week,  which  makes  about  80  millions  of 
miles  a  day, — a  motion  that  vastly  surpasses  all  human  com¬ 
prehension.  And  as  this  motion  continues  to  be  greatly 
accelerated,  what  must  it  be  when  the  comet  approaches  still 
nearer  to  the  body  of  the  sun !”  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  comet  was  considerably  nearer  the  earth  than  the  distance 
of  the  sun ;  but  still  the  velocity  with  which  it  was  impelled 
must  have  been  amazingly  great. 

*  Sir  John  Herschel’s  Astronomy. 

t  Dr.  O.  Gregory’s  Astronomy. 

29* 


342 


COMETS  DISPLAY  THE  WISDOM  AND 


Such  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  most  remarkable  facts,  inte¬ 
resting  to  general  readers,  which  have  been  ascertained  in 
relation  to  comets.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that,  in  the  progress  of 
astronomical  discovery,  some  additional  light  will  be  thrown 
on  the  nature  and  the  destination  of  those  mysterious  bodies, 
whose  number  appears  so  far  to  surpass  that  of  the  primary 
and  secondary  planets  of  our  system.  It  was  long  ago  pre¬ 
dicted  by  Seneca,  a  Roman  philosopher  who  lived  in  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  “  that  the  time  will  come  when 
the  nature  of  comets  and  their  magnitude  will  be  demon¬ 
strated,  and  the  courses  they  take  so  different  from  those  of 
the  planets ;  and  that  posterity  will  wonder  that  the  preceding 
ages  should  be  ignorant  in  matters  so  plain  and  easy  to  be 
known.”  In  order  that  this  prediction  may  be  fully  realized, 
it  is  requisite  that  we  should  become  acquainted  with  all  the 
observations  that  have  hitherto  been  made,  and  the  facts 
in  relation  to  these  bodies  which  have  been  ascertained ;  that 
we  should  compare  the  various  observations  with  each  other, 
and  attend  to  the  minutest  circumstances  and  phenomena  con¬ 
nected  with  comets ;  that  numerous  observers  should  be 
appointed  to  survey  different  portions  of  the  firmament,  both 
in  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  that  no  comet  that 
comes  within  the  limits  of  our  vision  may  pass  unobserved ; 
and  that  when  a  comet  of  a  large  size  approaches  near  the 
centre  of  our  system,  every  minute  particular  in  reference  to 
its  motions,  and  the  changes  which  takes  place  in  its  nucleus, 
envelope,  and  tail,  be  carefully  observed  and  delineated  by 
accurate  representations. 

Whatever  opinions  we  may  adopt  as  to  the  physical  con¬ 
stitution  of  comets,  we  must  admit  that  they  serve  some  grand 
and  important  purpose  in  the  economy  of  the  universe ;  for 
we  cannot  suppose  that  the  Almighty  has  created  such  an  im¬ 
mense  number  of  bodies,  and  set  them  in  rapid  motion  accord¬ 
ing  to  established  laws,  without  an  end  worthy  of  his  per¬ 
fections,  and,  on  the  whole,  beneficial  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
system  through  which  they  move. 

They  display  the  wisdom  of  their  Creator  in  the  arrange¬ 
ments  of  their  orbits  and  motions.  As  we  have  every  reason 
to  conclude  that  at  least  thousands  of  those  bodies  traverse 
the  solar  system  in  all  directions,  and  are  certain  that  their 
orbits  are  inclined  in  every  possible  degree  to  one  another, 
and  to  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  so  we  find  that  they  have  been 
so  admirably  arranged  by  Divine  Intelligence,  that  no  one  of 
them  interferes  with  another,  or  with  the  courses  of  the 
planets,  so  as  to  produce  concussion  or  disorder.  The  orbits 


OMNIPOTENCE  OP  DEITY. 


343 


of  some  comets  indeed  are  found  to  approach  very  near,  and 
even  to  cross  the  orbit  of  the  earth  and  the  orbits  of  several 
of  the  other  planets,  and  consequently,  there  is  a  possibility 
that  a  comet  might  come  into  concussion  with  our  globe ; 
and  this  consideration  shews  us  that  we  are  dependent  for  our 
present  security  and  comforts  on  the  wise  arrangements  of  the 
Almighty,  in  securing  perfect  harmony  and  order  amidst  ap¬ 
parent  danger  and  confusion.  But  we  have  no  evidence  that 
such  a  catastrophe  has  ever  happened,  either  in  the  case  of 
the  earth  or  of  any  of  the  other  planets,  or  that  one  comet 
has  ever  impinged  upon  another.  Believing  that  every  object 
and  event  in  the  universe  is  arranged  and  directed  by  an  Om¬ 
nipotent  Contriver,  we  must  admit  that  when  the  Almighty 
formed  the  wondrous  plan  of  creation,  w  foreseeing  the  end 
from  the  beginning,”  he  arranged  the  periods  and  the  velo¬ 
cities  of  comets  in  such  a  manner  that,  although  occasionally 
crossing  the  planetary  orbits,  they  should  not  pass  these 
orbits  at  the  time  when  the  planets  were  in  their  immediate 
vicinity.  And  should  such  an  event  ever  occur,  we  may  rest 
assured  that  it  is  in  perfect  accordance  with  the  plan  and  the 
will  of  Omnipotence,  and  that  it  is,  on  the  whole,  subservient 
to  the  happiness  and  order  of  the  intelligent  universe,  and  the 
ends  intended  by  the  Divine  government.  If  there  are  thou¬ 
sands  and  perhaps  millions  of  comets  of  all  descriptions  tra¬ 
versing  every  part  of  the  planetary  regions,  in  orbits  of  every 
degree  of  inclination,  of  extent,  and  of  eccentricity,  we  are 
sure  that  none  but  a  Being  of  infinite  power  and  intelligence 
could  have  arranged  such  a  vast  and  complicated  system,  so 
as  to  have  prevented  numerous  interferences  and  disasters, 
and  to  make  the  whole  move  onward  for  ages  in  perfect 
harmony. 

The  system  of  comets  likewise  presents  to  us  a  display  of 
the  omnipotence  and  grandeur  of  the  Deity.  The  number  of 
these  celestial  visitors,  the  vast  magnitude  of  their  tails,  en¬ 
velopes,  and  nuclei,  and  the  amazing  velocity  with  which 
they  wheel  their  courses  through  the  ethereal  regions,  exhibit 
before  us  objects  of  astonishing  grandeur,  and  evince  the 
Almighty  power  of  Him  who  at  first  impelled  them  in  their 
rapid  career.  The  diameter  of  the  nucleus  of  the  comet  of 
1807  was  estimated  by  Schroeter  at  4600  miles,  and  that  of 
its  coma  120,000  miles.  Besides  its  principal  tail,  it  shot 
forth  coruscations  to  the  extent  of  four  millions,  six  hundred 
thousand  miles.  The  nucleus  of  the  comet  of  1811  was,  ac¬ 
cording  to  the  same  observer,  50,000  miles  in  diameter,  its 
coma  or  envelope  947,000  miles,  and  its  tail  or  train  of  light, 


344  COMETS  DISPLAY  THE  OMNIPOTENCE,  ETC, 


sixty  millions  of  miles  in  length,  or  more  than  half  the  dis 
tance  between  the  earth  and  the  sun.  Let  us  conceive  such 
a  body,  like  the  comet  of  1680,  traversing  the  immense  spaces 
of  creation  with  the  velocity  of  ten  hundred  thousand  miles  an 
hour,  and  drawing  after  it  a  luminous  train,  a  hundred  millions 
of  miles  in  length,  approaching  at  one  time  so  near  the  sun 
that  his  circumference  would  appear  to  fill  the  greater  part  of 
the  firmament,  and  then  rushing  back  through  the  depths  of 
immeasurable  space,  thousands  of  millions  of  miles  beyond 
the  orbit  of  Uranus,  and  displaying  its  majestic  train  to  the 
other  planetary  worlds  of  our  system — and  we  have  presented 
to  our  mental  eye  an  object  of  peculiar  grandeur  and  magni¬ 
ficence,  different  from  every  thing  else  which  the  planetary 
system  exhibits,  and  which  displays  in  an  eminent  degree  the 
power  and  magnificence  of  the  Great  Creator.  Were  such  a 
body  to  sweep  along  the  regions  which  lie  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  our  globe,  at  the  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  thousand 
miles,  nothing  that  we  have  ever  beheld  or  can  well  conceive 
could  be  compared  to  the  majestic  grandeur  of  the  scene, 
which  would  overpower  the  mind  both  with  astonishment 
and  with  terror.  On  the  view  of  such  an  object,  sweeping 
along  with  such  velocity,  we  could  scarcely  refrain  from  ex¬ 
claiming,  in  the  language  of  inspiration, Great  and  marvellous 
are  thy  works,  Lord  God  Almighty  !”  What,  then,  shall  we 
think  of  thousands  of  such  mysterious  orbs  winging  their 
flight  in  every  direction,  in  perfect  regularity  and  order, 
through  the  immensity  of  space !  Surely  these  are  the  won¬ 
derful  works  of  Him  who  is  mighty  in  operation  and  perfect 
in  knowledge. 

In  all  the  works  of  the  Deity,  we  must  likewise  admit  that 
his  goodness  is  displayed  although  we  may  not  be  able  to 
trace  the  mode  of  its  communication  ;  for  we  may  lay  it  down 
as  an  axiom,  that  wherever  wisdom  and  omnipotence  are  ex¬ 
hibited  throughout  the  Divine  economy,  there  is  also  a  display 
of  beneficence,  which  appears  to  be  one  prominent  design  of 
all  the  works  of  God.  Comets  have  long  been  considered  as 
objects  of  terror,  and  as  omens  of  impending  calamities  ;  but 
there  can  be  no  question  that  they  are  as  intimately  connected 
with  a  system  of  benevolence  as  are  the  solar  radiations  and 
their  benign  influence  on  our  globe  and  on  the  other  planets. 
It  has  been  conjectured  that  comets  may  supply  moisture  to 
the  planets,  and  invigorate  the  vital  principle  of  our  atmo¬ 
sphere  ;  that  they  may  recruit  the  sun  with  fresh  fuel  and 
repair  the  consumption  of  his  light ;  or  that  they  may  be  the 
agents  for  dispersing  the  electric  fluid  throughout  the  plane- 


MR.  WEBB’S  TREATISE  ON  COMETS.  345 

tary  regions ;  and  although  there  is  little  probability  that  such 
conjectures  are  accordant  with  fact,  yet  it  may  be  admitted 
that  comets  may  produce  a  physical  influence  of  a  beneficial 
nature  throughout  the  solar  system.  Rut  what  I  conceive  to 
be  one  of  the  main  designs  of  the  Creator  in  the  formation  of 
such  a  vast  number  of  splendid  bodies  is,  that  they  may  serve 
as  habitations  for  myriads  of  intellectual  beings,  to  whom 
the  Almighty  bestows  his  perfections  in  a  peculiar  manner, 
and  on  whom  he  displays  the  riches  of  his  beneficence.  What¬ 
ever  may  be  the  intention  of  those  comets  which  are  destitute 
of  a  nucleus,  this,  in  all  probability,  is  the  chief  design  of 
those  which  are  large  and  which  are  invested  with  a  solid 
nucleus  ;  and  the  same  arguments  which  we  formerly  brought 
forward  to  prove  that  the  planets  are  inhabited  might  be  ad¬ 
duced  in  proof  of  the  inhabitability  of  comets.  If  this  posi¬ 
tion  be  admitted,  then  we  ought  to  contemplate  the  approach 
of  a  comet.,  not  as  an  object  of  terror  or  a  harbinger  of  evil, 
but  as  a  splendid  world,  of  a  different  construction  from  ours, 
conveying  millions  of  happy  beings  to  survey  a  new  region 
of  the  Divine  empire,  to  contemplate  new  scenes  of  creating 
power,  and  to  celebrate  in  loftier  strains  the  wonders  of  Om¬ 
nipotence.*  Viewing  the  comets  in  this  light,  what  an  immense 

*  The  most  complete  account  of  the  phenomena  &c.  of  comets  I  have 
seen  is  a  treatise  on  this  subject  in  manuscript,  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  W. 
Webb,  of  Tretire,  near  Ross.  This  treatise  contains — 1.  A  copious  in¬ 
troduction,  embodying  a  variety  of  interesting  general  remarks  in  relation 
to  this  subject.  2.  A  particular  account  of  the  comet  of  1807,  according 
to  the  observations  of  Sir  William  Herschel.  3.  A  description  of  the 
same  comet  from  the  observations  of  Dr.  Johan.  Hieron.  Schroeter.  4. 
An  account  of  the  great  comet  of  1811,  according  to  the  observations  of 
Sir  W.  Herschel.  5.  A  particular  description  of  the  phenomena  of  the 
same  comet,  according  to  the  observations  of  Schroeter.  6.  A  description 
of  the  second  comet  of  1811,  according  to  the  observations  of  Sir  W.  Her¬ 
schel.  These  observations,  particularly  those  of  Schroeter,  contain  the 
most  minute  descriptions  which  have  hitherto  been  given  of  the  pheno* 
mena  of  this  class  of  the  celestial  bodies,  and  will  be  found  of  essential 
service,  not  only  to  amateur  observers,  but  to  astronomers  of  every  de¬ 
scription.  They  have  been  extracted  and  arranged  chiefly  ftom  the 
“  Philosophical  Transactions,”  and  the  works  of  Schroeter,  which  were 
published  in  the  German  language.  The  Appendix,  or  Second  Part, 
which  occupies  nearly  half  the  volume,  comprises  a  lucid  investigation  of 
the  following  topics — 1.  Comparison  of  observations.  2.  Examination  of 
hypotheses.  3.  Nature,  light,  and  solidity  of  comets.  4.  Colours  of 
comets.  5.  Brightness  of  comets.  6.  Divided  tails  of  comets.  7.  Co¬ 
ruscations  of  comets.  8.  Miscellaneous  notices  concerning  remarkable 
comets.  9.  On  the  influence  of  comets.  10.  Losses  to  science,  contain¬ 
ing  an  account  of  the  disasters  which  befel  Schroeter,  Hevelius,  &c.  11, 

Hints  to  amateur  observers.  This  volume  contains  230  quarto  pages,  be¬ 
sides  a  great  number  of  copious  notes,  and  forty- six  figures  of  the  different 
appearances  of  comets.  It  indicates  a  very  great  degree  of  labour  and 
research,  which  the  astronomer  alone  will  be  able  fully  to  appreciate, 


346 


MR.  WEBB’S  TREATISE  ON  COMETS. 

population  must  be  contained  within  the  limits  of  the  solar 
system,  which  gives  room  for  the  excursions  of  such  a  vast 
number  of  these  bodies !  and  what  an  incalculable  number  of 
beings  of  all  ranks  must  people  the  wide-extended  universe ! 

The  author  appears  to  have  consulted  most  of  the  works  which  have 
been  published  on  the  subject,  in  the  English,  Latin,  French,  and  Ger¬ 
man  languages,  besides  embodying  a  number  of  original  observations  and 
remarks.  And  what  is  mot  among  tho  least  important  features  of  the 
work,  the  author  takes  every  proper  opportunity  of  introducing  such  moral 
reflections  as  the  subject  naturally  suggests,  and  of  directing  the  contem¬ 
plations  of  his  readers  to  Him  who  sits  on  the  throne  of  the  universe.  The 
observations  of  Schroeter  contained  in  the  preceding  pages  have  been  ex¬ 
tracted  from  this  volume.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  worthy  author,  who 
is  already  known  to  a  considerable  portion  of  the  scientific  world  by  his 
communications  to  periodicals  and  scientific  associations,  will  soon  receive 
encouragement  to  lay  this  work  before  the  public.  , 


APPENDIX. 


GENERAL  appearance  of  the  starry  heavens  at 

DIFFERENT  PERIODS  OF  THE  YEAR. 

The  following  descriptions  are  intended  to  point  out  to  the 
young  observer  the  principal  stars  and  constellations  in  the 
beginning  of  every  alternate  month  throughout  the  year,  and 
the  particular  quarter  of  the  heavens  where  they  may  be  per¬ 
ceived.  The  time  of  observation  is  supposed  to  be  nine  o'clock 
in  the  evening ,  except  on  the  1st  of  July ;  but  the  general 
aspect  of  the  heavens,  and  the  relative  positions  of  the  dif¬ 
ferent  stars  and  constellations,  will  not  be  materially  different 
when  viewed  an  hour  before  or  after  the  time  now  specified. 

JLspect  of  the  Heavens  on  the  1st  of  January,  at  nine  o'clock  in  the 

evening. 

At  this  time  the  Pleiades ,  or  Seven  Stars,  are  nearly  on  the 
meridian,  at  an  elevation  of  more  than  60  degrees  above  the 
southern  horizon.  The  bright  star  Jildeharan ,  or  the  Bull’s 
Eye,  which  is  of  a  ruddy  hue,  appears  to  the  left,  in  a  direc¬ 
tion  nearly  east  by  south,  at  the  distance  of  14°.  About  15° 
east-north-east  of  Aldebaran  is  a  bright  star  of  the  second 
magnitude,  marked  Beta,  or  El-nath ;  from  this  star  to  Zeta , 
in  the  tip  of  the  southern  horn  of  the  Bull,  is  about  8°  in  a 
southern  direction.  This  star  forms  a  right  angle  with  Alde¬ 
baran  and  Beta.  North  of  Beta,  at  the  distance  of  17°,  is  the 
bright  star  Capella,  in  the  constellation  of  Auriga,  a  star  of 
the  first  magnitude,  which  appears  at  a  high  elevation  a  few 
degrees  south-east  of  the  zenith.  In  a  direction  south-east  of 
Aldebaran  and  the  Pleiades  is  the  splendid  constellation  of 
Orion.  Bellatrix ,  on  the  west  shoulder  of  Orion,  is  about 
16°  south-east  of  Aldebaran,  which  is  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  line  which  connects  the  Pleiades  with  Bellatrix ;  these 
three  objects  appearing  nearly  equidistant  in  a  line  N.W.  and 
S.E.  of  each  other.  Nearly  due  east  from  Bellatrix,  at  the 
distance  of  7-|°,  is  Betelguese,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in 
the  east  shoulder  of  Orion.  About  15°  south  by  west  of  Bel- 

347 


348 


ASPECT  OP  THE  HEAVENS 


latrix  is  Higel ,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude  in  the  left  foo^, 
and  8J°  to  the  east  is  Saiph ,  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude  in 
the  right  knee  of  Orion.  These  four  stars  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram,  with  the  three  bright  equidistant  stars  called 
the  Belt ,  forai  the  outlines  of  this  constellation.  There  is  a 
small  triangle  of  three  small  stars  in  the  head  of  Orion  which 
forms  a  larger  triangle  with  Bellatrix  and  Betelguese,  the  two 
in  his  shoulders.  ( See  fig.  of  Orion,  p.  47,  and  Plate  I.) 

North-east  of  Betelguese,  at  the  distance  of  14°,  is  the  star 
JClhena ,  or  y  Geminorum,  the  principal  star  in  the  feet  of  the 
Twins;  and  about  20°  N.E.,  nearly  in  the  same  right  line 
from  Betelguese,  are  Castor  and  Pollux,  Castor  being  the  up¬ 
permost  and  the  brightest,  at  the  distance  of  only  4|°  from 
Pollux.  These  and  the  other  stars  which  lie  adjacent  to  them 
form  the  constellation  Gemini,  one  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac. 
The  small  stars  immediately  to  the  east  of  Gemini  are  in  the 
constellation  Cancer ,  another  zodiacal  constellation  through 
which  the  sun  passes  in  July  and  August.  In  this  constella¬ 
tion  is  a  nebulous  cluster  of  very  small  stars,  called  Prcesepi , 
which  may  be  distinguished  as  a  faint  cloudy  speck  by  the 
naked  eye.  (See  page  149.) 

Immediately  below  Orion  are  the  constellations  of  Lepns , 
or  the  Hare,  and  Noah’s  Dove,  which  are  very  near  the  hori¬ 
zon.  South  by  east  of  Orion  is  Canis  Major ,  or  the  Greater 
Dog,  which  is  distinguished  by  its  principal  star  Sirius ,  the 
brightest  fixed  star  in  the  heavens.  It  is  nearly  straight  south 
of  Alhena,  in  the  feet  of  the  Twins,  at  35°  degrees  distant,  and 
south  by  east  of  Betelguese  at  the  distance  of  27°.  A  line 
drawn  through  the  three  stars  in  the  belt  of  Orion,  and  pro¬ 
longed,  meets  Sirius  at  the  distance  of  23°.  About  5\°  west 
of  Sirius  is  Mirzam ,  of  the  second  magnitude,  in  the  foot  of 
the  Dog.  Nearly  due  east  from  Orion,  but  less  elevated 
above  the  horizon,  is  Canis  Minor ,  or  the  Lessor  Dog.  The 
centre  of  this  small  constellation  is  situated  about  5°  north  of 
the  equinoctial,  and  midway  between  Gemini  and  Canis  Major. 
It  is  distinguished  by  the  bright  star  named  Procyon ,  which 
signifies  u  before  the  Dog.”  About  4°  to  the  north-west  is 
Gomelza ,  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude.  Procyon,  at  the  time 
supposed,  appears  nearly  due  east  from  Betelguese,  at  the  dis¬ 
tance  of  about  26°.  The  head  of  Hydra  lies  immediately  to 
the  east  of  Procyon ;  but  Jilphard ,  or  Cor  Hydrcc ,  the  prin¬ 
cipal  star  of  this  constellation,  is  not  risen  at  the  time  sup¬ 
posed.  A  little  to  the  north  of  the  eastern  point  of  the  com¬ 
pass,  and  at  a  very  small  elevation  above  the  horizon,  is 
Itegulus ,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  constellation 


ON  THE  FIRST  OF  JANUARY.  349 

Leo,  which  is  the  fifth  sign,  and  the  sixth  constellation  of  the 
zodiac. 

Turning  our  faces  towards  the  north-east,  Ursa  Major ,  or 
the  Great  Bear,  is  the  most  striking  constellation  that  meets 
the  eye.  The  two  pointers,  Dubbe  and  Merak ,  appear  upper¬ 
most,  and  point  westward  to  the  Pole-star ;  while  the  stars 
forming  the  tail  seem  to  hang  downwards  from  the  square  of 
this  constellation.  As  the  night  advances,  this  group  of  stars 
rises  higher  in  the  heavens,  til./,  about  three  in  the  morning, 
they  approach  near  the  zenith.  Ursa  Minor ,  or  the  Lesser 
Bear,  is  seen  below  the  pole,  the  square  of  which  being  a  little 
to  the  eastward  of  the  meridian.  Directly  below  the  Great 
Bear,  at  a  very  small  elevation  above  the  horizon,  and  in  a 
direction  N.E.  by  N.,  is  Cor  Carol‘s  a  star  of  the  second  mag¬ 
nitude,  in  Char  a,  one  of  the  Greyhounds.  North  by  East  of 
Aldebaran,  at  the  distance  of  30°,  is  the  bright  star  Capella 
in  Auriga. 

Directing  our  view  a  little  to  the  west  of  the  meridian,  we 
perceive  the  constellation  Aries ,  which  is  immediately  to  the 
westward  of  the  Pleiades,  and  nearly  at  the  same  altitude. 
Above  2000  years  ago,  in  the  days  of  Hipparchus,  this  con¬ 
stellation  occupied  the  first  sign  in  the  zodiac,  into  which  the 
sun  entered  about  the  21st  of  March*  but,  as  in  consequence 
of  the  precession  of  the  equinoxes  the  constellations  gain  about 
50r/  on  the  equinox  every  year,  they  have  now  advanced  in 
the  ecliptic  nearly  31  degrees  beyond  it,  or  somewhat  more 
than  a  whole  sign  ;  so  that  the  constellation  Pisces  now  occu¬ 
pies  the  same  place  in  the  zodiac  that  Aries  did  2000  years 
ago,  while  the  constellation  Aries  is  now  in  the  sign  Taurus, 
Taurus  in  Gemini,  &c.,  so  that  Aries,  though  the  first  sign,  is 
the  second  constellation  of  the  Zodiac.  It  is  situated  next 
east  of  Pisces,  and  midway  between  the  Triangles  and  Musca 
on  the  north,  and  Cetus ,  or  the  Whale,  on  the  south.  It  is 
distinguished  by  two  bright  stars  in  the  head,  distant  from 
each  other  about  4°,  the  brightest  being  a  little  to  the  east  or 
north-east  of  the  other,  being  about  25°  west  of  the  Pleiades, 
and  19°  south  of  Almaack ,  in  the  foot  of  Andromeda.  North 
by  east  from  Aries  is  Musca ,  or  the  Fly,  which  consists  of  four 
or  five  stars,  chiefly  of  the  third  and  fourth  magnitudes,  very 
near  to  each  other.  It  is  situated  between  the  first  star  of 
Aries  and  the  Pleiades,  but  a  little  higher  than  either.  North 
by  east  from  the  Fly,  at  the  distance  of  about  15°,  and  at  20° 
north  by  west  of  the  Pleiades,  and  at  a  higher  elevation,  is 
the  head  of  Medusa ,  the  principal  star  of  which  is  Algol, 
which  regularly  varies  in  its  lustre.  (See  p.  90.)  West  by 
Vol.  VIII.  30 


S50 


ASPECT  OF  THE  HEAVENS 


north  flora  Medusa  is  Andromeda ,  one  of  the  principal  stars 
of  which  is  Almaack ,  at  the  distance  of  12°  west  by  north  of 
Algol.  West  of  Almaack,  at  the  distance  of  12°,  is  Merach , 
both  of  them  stars  of  the  second  magnitude.  If  the  line  con¬ 
necting  Almaack  and  Merach  be  prolonged  8°  further  west  or 
south-west,  it  will  reach  Delta ,  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude 
in  the  left  breast. 

West  from  Andromeda,  and  a  little  to  the  south,  is  Pegasus , 
or  the  Flying  Horse,  which  is  distinguished  from  the  other 
constellations  by  four  bright  stars  of  the  second  magnitude, 
forming  a  square,  which  is  generally  termed  the  Square  of 
Pegasus.  The  northermost  star,  which  is  the  brightest  of 
three  that  form  a  kind  of  triangle,  is  Scheat ,  whose  N.  declina¬ 
tion  is  202°.  Markab  is  situated  13°  south  of  Scheat,  and  at 
the  time  supposed  is  nearly  due  west,  and  about  22°  above 
the  western  point  of  the  horizon.  These  two  stars  form  the 
western  side  of  the  square.  East  from  Markab,  at  the  distance 
of  I620,  is  Algenib ,  and  14°  north  of  Algenib  is  Alpheratz  ; 
which  two  stars  form  the  eastern  side  of  the  square.  Scheat 
and  Alpheratz  form  the  northern ,  and  Markab  and  Algenib 
the  southern  sides  of  the  square.  Alpheratz  constitutes  a 
part  of  the  head  of  Andromeda,  but  it  is  also  considered  as 
connected  with  Pegasus.  About  26°  north  of  Andromeda  is 
Cassiopeia ,  midway  between  it  and  the  Pole-star.  It  passes 
the  meridian  nearly  in  the  zenith  about  the  22d  of  November. 
At  this  time  it  is  between  20°  and  30°  west  of  the  meridian. 
( See  pp.  2 5  and  78.)  The  star  Caph ,  in  this  constellation, 
along  with  Alpheratz  and  Algenib,  are  situated  on  the  prime 
meridian  which  passes  through  the  first  point  of  Aries,  from 
which  the  right  ascensions  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies  are 
measured.  The  line  connecting  these  stars  forms  an  arc  of 
the  equinoctial  colure ,  which  passes  through  the  vernal  equi¬ 
nox,  and  across  which  the  sun  passes  on  the  21st  of  March. 
When  we  say  that  the  sun,  or  a  star,  or  a  planet  is  in  so  many 
degrees  of  right  ascension,  we  mean  that  it  is  situated,  or  has 
moved  eastward  so  many  degrees  from  this  great  circle. 
North-west  of  Cassiopeia  is  Cephus ,  at  the  distance  of  about 
25°,  the  head  of  which  is  in  the  Milky  Way,  and  may  be 
known  by  three  stars  of  the  fourth  magnitude  in  the  crown, 
forming  a  small  acute  triangle  about  9°  from  Alderamin ,  a  star 
of  the  third  magnitude  in  the  left  shoulder. 

Next  to  Cepheus,  on  the  west,  is  Cygnus ,  or  the  Swan  ;  the 
principal  stars  of  which  are  distinguished  as  forming  the  figure 
of  a  large  cross ,  the  upright  piece  of  which  lies  along  the 
Milky  Way.  The  most  brilliant  star  in  this  constellation  is 


ON  THE  FIRST  ,  OF  JANUARY. 


351 


Deneb  Cygni,  of  the  first  magnitude,  which  is  at  this  time  in 
a  direction  nearly  north-west,  and  25°  above  the  horizon. 
West  from  Deneb,  at  the  distance  of  10°  or  11°,  is  .Delta; 
and  the  line  prolonged  about  15°  further  leads  to  the  bright 
star  Vega ,  the  principal  star  in  Lyra ,  which  is  then  about  6° 
above  the  horizon  in  a  direction  north-west  by  north.  N orth 
by  east  of  Lyra  is  the  head  of  Draco ,  distinguished  by  four 
stars  separate  from  each  other  by  intervals  of  3°,  4°,  and  5°. 
The  one  to  the  south,  or  nearest  Lyra,  is  Etanim ,  or  y  Dra- 
conis,  which  Dr.  Bradley  fixed  upon  in  his  attempt  to  deter¬ 
mine  the  annual  parallax.  At  this  time  it  is  16°  above  the 
horizon,  in  a  direction  N.  N.  W.  About  4°  to  the  north  of 
it  is  Rastaben ,  both  of  them  stars  of  the  second  magnitude. 
Turning  our  eyes  again  towards  the  southern  part  of  the  meri¬ 
dian,  we  behold  the  head  of  Cetus  or  the  Whale,  about  20°  S.E. 
of  Aries,  and  about  24°  S.  by  W.  of  the  Pleiades.  It  is  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  five  stars,  4°  or  5°  asunder,  which  form  a  figure 
resembling  a  regular  pentagon.  The  brightest  of  these  stars, 
which  is  the  eastermost,  and  of  the  second  magnitude,  is  Men - 
kar ,  which  makes  an  equilateral  triangle  with  Arictis  and  the 
Pleiades,  being  distant  from  each  about  23i°.  About  14° 
south-west  of  Menkar  is  Mira ,  or  the  Wonderful  Star,  which 
is  found  to  vary  its  apparent  size  from  a  star  of  the  second  or 
third,  to  one  of  the  sixth  or  seventh  magnitude.  (See  pp. 
87,  88.)  North-west  of  the  head  of  Cetus,  and  west  of 
Aries,  is  the  constellation  Pisces ,  or  the  Fishes,  one  of  the 
signs  of  the  Zodiac,  in  which  there  are  no  remarkable  stars, 
most  of  them  being  of  the  third,  fourth,  and  inferior  magni¬ 
tudes. 

Such  is  a  general  outline  of  the  heavens  as  they  appear 
about  the  beginning  of  January. 

General  Appearance  of  the  Heavens  on  the  lsf  of  March ,  at  nine 

o'clock  p.  M. 

At  this  period  of  the  year,  at  9  p.m.,  several  of  the  constel¬ 
lations  which  were  seen  in  the  beginning  of  January,  have 
disappeared,  such  as  Pegasus,  Pisces,  and  others.  Others, 
which  are  still  visible,  appear  in  other  quarters  of  the  heavens; 
and  some  stars  and  constellations  which  were  then  below  the 
horizon  have  risen  to  a  considerable  elevation  above  it.  Orion 
is  now  in  the  south-west  quarter  of  the  heavens;  the  Pleiades, 
instead  of  being  on  the  meridian,  are  due  west,  at  an  elevation 
of  34°  above  the  western  point  of  the  horizon  ;  the  bright  star 
Sirius  is  to  the  west  of  the  meridian,  in  a  direction  S.  S.  W.; 


352  GENERAL  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  ETC. 

Canis  Minor  and  Procyon  are  a  few  degrees  to  the  west  of 
the  meridian ;  Castor  and  Pollux,  directly  north  of  Procyon, 
have  likewise  passed  the  meridian ;  Capella  is  seen  at  a  high 
elevation,  30°  west  of  the  zenith ;  Menkar,  in  the  head  of  the 
Whale,  is  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  western  horizon ;  Aries 
is  likewise  near  the  western  horizon ;  and  Cassiopeia  is  in  a 
north-westerly  direction,  and  at  a  lower  altitude  than  in  Ja¬ 
nuary  ;  Deneb.,  in  the  Swan,  is  very  near  the  horizon,  a  little 
to  the  west  of  the  north  point;  Vega,  in  the  Lyre,  is  just  rising 
at  a  short  distance  to  the  east  of  it;  the  head  of  Draco  is  in  a 
N.N.E.  direction,  about  18°  above  the  horizon  ;  the  Great  Bear 
is  at  a  higher  elevation  than  in  January,  and  the  Pointers  in 
a  direction  N.N.E. ;  and  Cor  Caroli  appears  in  a  direction  east 
by  north,  about  midway  between  the  zenith  and  the  horizon. 

The  following  constellations,  among  others,  now  appear 
which  were  under  the  horizon  in  January: — Hydra ,  the 
largest  star  in  which  is  Alphard ,  or  Cor  Hydrae.  It  is  at 
this  time  in  a  direction  S.  S.  E.,  about  28°  above  the  horizon. 
It  may  be  distinguished  from  this  circumstance,  that  there  is 
no  other  considerable  star  near  it.  It  is  23°  S.S.W.  of  Regu- 
lus.  The  constellation  Leo,  which  was  only  partly  visible  in 
January,  now  appears  in  its  splendour  towards  the  eastern  part 
of  the  sky.  Regulus,  one  of  its  largest  stars,  situated  within 
half  a  degree  of  the  ecliptic,  is  distinguished  as  being  the 
largest  and  lowest  of  a  group  of  five  or  six  stars  which  form 
a  figure  or  curve  somewhat  resembling  a  sickle.  East  of  Re¬ 
gulus,  at  the  distance  of  25°,  is  JDenebola ,  in  the  Lion’s  tail, 
which  appears  nearly  in  an  eastern  direction  35°  above  the 
horizon.  East  from  Leo  is  the  constellation  Virgo ;  but  all 
the  stars  connected  with  it  have  not  at  this  time  risen  above 
the  horizon.  It  is  situated  midway  between  Coma  Berenices 
on  the  north,  and  Corvus  on  the  south.  Coma  Berenices , 
which  consists  of  a  cluster  of  small  stars,  is  in  a  direction 
nearly  due  east,  and  about  midway  between  the  zenith  and 
the  horizon.  East  by  north  of  this  cluster  at  a  low  elevation, 
is  Bootes,  the  principal  star  of  which  is  Arcturus ,  of  the  first 
magnitude.  It  is  at  this  time  in  a  direction  east  by  north,  14° 
above  the  horizon.  Further  to  the  north,  and  at  a  lower  eleva¬ 
tion,  is  Corona  Borealis ,  or  the  Northern  Crown,  the  principal 
star  in  which  is  called  Alphacca ,  of  the  third  magnitude,  and 
11°  east  by  north  of  Mirac ,  or  e  Bootes.  This  constellation 
is  distinguished  by  its  six  principal  stars,  which  are  so  placed 
as  to  form  a  circular  figure,  somewhat  resembling  a  wreath  or 
crown 


i 


APPEARANCE  OF  THE  HEAVENS,  ETC. 


353 


General  Appearance  of  the  Heavens  on  the  Is/  of  May ,  at  9  p.  m. 

At  this  period  several  of  the  more  splendid  constellations 
'which  adorn  our  nocturnal  sky  during  winter  have  disap¬ 
peared.  Orion  is  nearly  hid  beneath  the  western  horizon, 
and  only  the  bright  star  Betelguese  can  be  faintly  seen,  as  it  is 
about  to  descend  below  the  western  point  of  the  horizon. 
Aries  has  completely  disappeared ;  Caput  Medusae,  Taurus, 
the  Pleiades,  and  Aldebaran,  are  just  verging  on  the  borders 
of  the  north-western  horizon,  and  are  scarcely  visible ;  and 
the  brilliant  star  Sirius  has  completely  disappeared  from  the 
nocturnal  sky.  The  Head  of  Hydra,  with  Alphard,  its  princi¬ 
pal  star,  are  in  a  south-westerly  direction  \  Canis  Minor  and 
Procyon  are  in  a  direction  W.S.W.,  considerably  to  the  west 
of  Alphard,  but  nearly  at  the  same  altitude.  North  of  Pro¬ 
cyon,  at  a  considerable  distance,  are  Castor  and  Pollux,  about 
midway  between  the  zenith  and  the  western  point  of  the 
horizon.  At  a  considerable  distance  to  the  north-west  of 
these  is  Capella,  considerably  nearer  the  north-western  hori¬ 
zon  than  the  zenith.  Cassiopeia  appears  very  low  in  altitude, 
near  the  northern  quarter  of  the  heavens,  and  the  Great  Bear 
appears  near  its  most  elevated  position,  not  far  from  the  zenith, 
the  two  Pointers  pointing  nearly  directly  downwards  to  the 
Pole-star,  while  at  the  same  hour  in  November,  they  point 
almost  directly  upwards.  Regulus  is  about  22°  west  of  the 
meridian,  at  a  considerable  elevation ;  Denebola,  in  the  same 
constellation  (the  Lion),  is  just  on  the  meridian,  at  a  little 
higher  altitude  than  Regulus.  Arcturus  is  seen  in  a  direction 
E.S.E.,  at  a  very  considerable  elevation,  and  26°  north-west 
of  it  is  Cor  Caroli,  not  very  far  from  the  zenith.  The  stars 
in  the  Northern  Crown  appear  due  east,  midway  between  the 
zenith  and  the  horizon.  The  brilliant  star  a  Lyrae  appears 
near  the  north-east,  about  23^°  above  the  horizon.  The  Swan 
is  near  the  N.N.E.  quarter  of  the  sky,  and  one  of  its  principal 
stars,  Deneb,  is  about  14°  above  the  horizon.  The  principal 
stars  in  Draco  appear  elevated  20°  above  a  Lyrae,  and  nearly 
in  the  same  direction. 

The  principal  constellations  which  were  formerly  invisible 
are — the  south-eastern  portion  of  Virgo ,  Libra ,  Taurus  Po - 
niatowski ,  Serpentarius ,  and  Hercules.  These  constellations 
appear  near  the  eastern  and  south-eastern  portions  of  the  sky. 
The  bright  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  Spica  Virginis ,  which 
was  below  the  horizon  in  March,  is  now  elevated  24°,  and 
may  be  seen  in  a  direction  S.S.E.  It  is  35°  south-east  of 

30* 


354 


ASPECT  OF  THE  HEAVENS 


Denebola,  and  about  the  same  distance  S.S.W.  of  Arcturus; 
three  stars  of  the  first  magnitude,  which  form  a  large  equila¬ 
teral  triangle,  pointing  to  the  south.  A  similar  triangle,  point¬ 
ing  to  the  north,  is  formed  by  Arcturus,  Denebola,  and  Cor 
Caroli.  The  principal  star  in  Hercules  is  Ras  Algethi ;  and 
Ras  JUhague ,  5°  from  it,  in  the  head  of  Ophiuchus,  may  be 
seen  nearly  due  east,  at  a  small  elevation  above  the  horizon, 
Ras  Algethi  being  the  brightest  and  the  highest.  Libra  is 
situated  to  the  south  of  the  Serpent ,  and  to  the  east  of  Virgo. 
Its  two  brightest  stars  are  of  the  second  magnitude ;  the  one 
is  named  Zubeneschamali ,  21°  east  of  Spica  Virginis,  but  at 
a  much  lower  altitude ;  the  other  is  called  Zubenelgemabi , 
about  9|°  above  the  other  towards  the  north-east.  At  this 
time  they  appear  in  the  south-east  quarter  of  the  heavens,  at 
no  great  elevation  above  the  horizon.  The  constellation 
Serpens  lies  between  Corona  Borealis  and  Libra.  Its  princi¬ 
pal  star  is  of  the  second  magnitude,  and  named  Unuk  ;  it  may 
be  known  by  being  nearly  in  the  middle  between  two  smaller 
starsj  the  lower  one  being  2|°,  and  the  upper  5|°  from  it.  It 
is  in  a  direction  E.S.E.,  at  about  24°  above  the  horizon. 

Aspect  of  the  Heavens  on  the  1st  of  July ,  at  10  p.m. 

As  the  twilight  at  this  season  is  too  strong  to  admit  of  par¬ 
ticular  observations  at  9  p.m.,  I  have  fixed  on  the  hour  of  ten 
as  the  most  proper  time  for  perceiving  the  principal  stars. 
Most  of  the  southern  constellations  which  were  visible  in 
January,  and  which  are  the  most  brilliant,  have  now  disap¬ 
peared  ;  and  those  in  the  north  are  in  positions  in  the  heavens 
very  different  from  those  on  which  they  appeared  in  winter. 
The  Northern  Crown,  the  Serpent,  and  Libra,  are  now  to  the 
west  of  the  meridian  *,  Arcturus  is  considerably  to  the  west  of 
the  meridian,  but  at  a  high  elevation ;  immediately  below 
which,  at  a  considerable  distance,  is  Spica  Virginis,  very  near 
the  S.W.  by  W.  point  of  the  horizon.  Cor  Caroli  appears 
north  by  west  of  Arcturus,  at  a  considerable  distance,  and  at 
a  high  altitude ;  immediately  below  which,  at  a  considerable 
distance,  and  nearly  due  west,  is  Denebola.  The  Great  Bear 
is  now  considerably  west  of  the  meridian,  at  a  high  altitude, 
the  two  pointers  pointing  eastward  to  the  Pole-star.  Castor 
and  Pollux  have  just  descended  below  the  horizon  near  the 
north-west ;  and  Capella,  which  never  sets  in  this  latitude,  is 
very  near  the  north  point,  only  a  few  degrees  above  the 
horizon.  Cassiopeia  is  near  the  north-eastern  quarter,  at  no 
great  elevation,  and  a  Lyrae  is  at  a  very  high  altitude  to  the 


ON  THE  FIRST  OF  SEPTEMBER. 


3  55 


east  of  the  meridian ;  east  of  which,  at  a  lower  altitude,  is 
Deneb,  one  of  the  principal  stars  in  the  Swan.  The  four  stars 
forming  the  square  of  Pegasus  are  now  seen  a  little  to  the 
north  of  the  E.  point,  in  a  position  nearly  opposite  to  that  in 
which  they  appeared  in  January.  The  star  Jlntares ,  in 
Scorpio,  of  the  first  magnitude,  is  past  the  meridian,  at  an  alti¬ 
tude  of  only  about  11°.  Ras  Algethi  and  Alhague  are  nearly 
on  the  meridian. 

The  constellation  of  Jlquila ,  or  the  Eagle,  which  was  for¬ 
merly  invisible,  now  makes  its  appearance  in  the  south-east. 
Altair ,  its  principal  star,  of  between  the  first  and  second  mag¬ 
nitude,  is  distinguished  by  being  nearly  in  the  middle  between 
two  stars  of  the  third  magnitude,  each  of  them  2°  distant  from 
it  in  a  line  bearing  S.E.  and  N.W.  Altair  is  at  this  time  about 
37°  above  the  south-eastern  horizon.  North-east  of  Aquila 
is  the  Dolphin,  at  the  distance  of  13°  or  14°.  It  is  a  beautiful 
little  cluster  of  stars,  consisting  of  about  18  in  number,  includ¬ 
ing  five  of  the  third  magnitude,  but  none  larger,  which  are  so 
arranged  as  to  form  the  figure  of  a  diamond,  pointing  N.E.  and 
S.W.  It  is  sometimes  known  by  the  name  of  JolPs  Coffin, 
North  and  north-west  of  the  Dolphin  are  Sagitta,  and  Vulpe - 
cula  et  Anser ,  or  the  Fox  and  Goose;  south  of  Aquila  is 
Capricornus ,  and  south-east  of  it,  Aquarius  ;  but  these  last 
are  more  distinctly  seen  in  the  month  of  September.  The 
Milky  Way  runs  along  with  considerable  brightness  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Aquila,  Vulpecula,  Delphinus,  and  Cygnus. 

Appearance  of  the  Sidereal  Heavens  on  the  1st  of  September ,  at  9  p.m. 

At  this  time  Altair  is  nearly  on  the  meridian  at  an  altitude 
of  46|°,  and  Vega ,  or  a  Lyne,  is  about  16°  west  of  the  meri¬ 
dian,  in  a  direction  north  by  west  from  Altair.  Ras  Algethi 
and  Ras  Alhague  are  west  from  Altair,  nearly  midway  between 
that  star  and  the  south-western  point  of  the  horizon.  To  the 
north-west  of  Vega  is  the  head  of  Draco,  at  the  distance  of 
nearly  20°.  Arcturus  is  in  a  position  west  by  north,  within 
19°  of  the  horizon.  The  Northern  Crown  is  in  a  higher  ele¬ 
vation  than  Arcturus,  nearly  due  west,  rather  nearer  the  hori¬ 
zon  than  the  zenith.  Cor  Caroli  appears  nearly  N.W.  by  W. 
at  23°  of  altitude ;  and  the  Great  Bear  in  a  north-westerly 
direction,  and  at  a  lower  altitude  than  formerly.  To  the  east 
of  the  meridian,  Capella  is  seen  in  a  direction  nearly  N.N.E., 
at  an  altitude  of  15°.  East  of  Capella,  at  a  little  lower  eleva¬ 
tion,  is  Menkalma ,  or  /3  Aurigae,  a  star  of  the  second  magni¬ 
tude.  Cassiopeia  appears  in  the  north-east,  about  midway 


356  aspect  oe  the  heavens  in  November. 

between  the  zenith  and  the  north-eastern  horizon.  The 
Square  of  Pegasus  is  in  a  direction  east  by  south,  and  is  in 
a  much  higher  elevation  than  in  July.  The  Dolphin  is  a  few 
degrees  east  of  the  meridian,  and  N.E.  of  Altair,  at  an  altitude 
of  above  50°„  Along  the  southern  quarter  of  the  heavens  are 
the  following  constellations  : — Aries,  in  a  direction  east  by 
north;  Pisces,  due  east,  and  next  to  Aries  on  the  west; 
Aquarius,  to  the  west  of  Pisces,  in  a  direction  S.S.E. ;  Capri- 
cornus,  west  from  Aquarius,  nearly  in  the  south;  Sagittarius 
and  Sobieski’s  Shield,  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  and 
Scorpio,  which  lies  still  further  to  the  west.  Most  of  these 
constellations,  except  Aries  and  Pisces,  are  at  a  low  altitude. 

Appearance  of  the  Heavens  on  the  1st  of  November,  at  9  p.  m. 

About  this  time  the  winter  constellations  begin  again  to 
make  their  appearance  in  our  hemisphere.  The  centre  of  the 
Square  of  Pegasus  is  at  this  season  and  hour  nearly  on  the 
meridian;  the  stars  Scheat  and  Markab,  of  which  Scheat  is  the 
uppermost,  appear  on  the  west  of  the  meridian,  and  Alpheratz 
and  Algenib  on  the  east.  Turning  our  eyes  to  the  western 
part  of  the  heavens,  we  see  the  Southern  Fish ,  a  little  to  the 
west  of  the  south,  and  its  principal  star,  Fomalhaut,  several 
degrees  to  the  west  of  the  meridian,  at  a  very  low  altitude. 
To  the  west  is  Capricornus,  and  to  the  north-west,  Aquarius. 
Aquila,  with  its  principal  star  Altair,  is  in  a  direction  west  by 
south,  at  about  23°  above  the  horizon.  Deneb  Cygni  is  at  a 
very  high  elevation,  about  30°  west  from  the  zenith,  and  a 
Lyrse  26°  north-west  of  it,  in  a  direction  W.N.W.,  at  a  much 
low'er  elevation.  North  by  west  of  Lyra  are  the  two  stars 
in  the  head  of  Draco,  Etanin  and  Rastaben ,  about  4°  apart. 
Ras  Algethi  and  Ras  Alhague  are  nearly  due  west,  at  a  very 
small  elevation  above  the  horizon.  The  centre  of  the  Great 
Bear  is  nearly  due  north,  and  at  its  lowest  elevation,  the  stars  in 
the  tail  being  to  the  west,  and  the  two  pointers  a  little  to  the 
east  of  the  northern  part  of  the  meridian,  pointing  upwards. 
Turning  our  view  to  the  eastern  quarter  of  the  sky,  we  behold 
Aries  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  next  to  Pegasus,  and  at  a 
pretty  high  elevation.  South  by  east  of  the  first  star  in  Aries 
is  Menkar  in  the  head  of  the  Whale,  in  a  direction  S.E.  by  E., 
about  26°  above  the  horizon.  North-west  of  the  first  star  in 
Aries  is  Mirach,  and  north  by  east  Almaack,  at  a  higher  eleva¬ 
tion,  both  of  them  in  Andromeda.  Near  the  north  quarter  is 
Capella,  about  midway  between  the  zenith  and  the  horizon. 
The  Pleiades  are  seen  nearly  due  east,  followed  by  the  ruddy 


PERIODS  OF  THE  YEAR,  ETC. 


357 


star  Aldebaran,  at  a  lower  elevation.  Below  Aldebaran,  and 
to  the  south-east,  the  head  and  shoulders  of  Orion  begin  to 
make  their  apppearance,  Bellatrix  being  4°  or  5°  above  the 
horizon,  and  Betelguese  a  little  lower.  Cassiopeia  is  near  the 
zenith,  a  little  to  the  east  of  the  meridian,  and  Castor  and  Pol¬ 
lux,  in  Gemini,  are  in  a  direction  north-east,  just  a  little  above 
the  horizon.  At  this  time  the  equinoctial  colure  is  only  a 
few  degrees  to  the  east  of  the  meridian,  and  the  three  stars 
Caph  in  Cassiopeia,  and  Alpheratz  and  Jllgenib  in  Pegasus, 
which  lie  in  the  line  of  its  curve,  may  now  be  distinctly  per¬ 
ceived.  Caph  is  at  the  highest  altitude  of  the  three,  and  its 
distance  from  Alpheratz  is  about  double  the  distance  between 
Alpheratz  and  Algenib.  If  a  line  connecting  these  three  stars 
be  produced  northward,  it  will  terminate  in  the  pole. 


The  above  brief  sketches  may  enable  the  young  observer 
to  trace  the  principal  stars  and  constellations  by  a  few  observa¬ 
tions  at  different  seasons  of  the  year.  The  altitudes  here 
expressed  are  stated  in  reference  to  places  about  52°  north 
latitude ;  but  by  making  certain  allowances  corresponding  to 
the  latitude  of  the  observer,  the  relative  positions  of  the  stars 
will  appear  nearly  the  same  as  here  represented,  particularly 
if  the  difference  of  latitude  does  not  much  exceed  10  degrees. 
It  should  be  carefully  remarked  that  the  bearings  of  one  star 
from  another,  as  here  given,  are  strictly  true  only  when  the 
star  from  which  the  bearings  are  given  is  on  or  7iear  the  meri¬ 
dian. — (See  note,  p.  170.) 

As  a  further  assistance  to  the  astronomical  tyro  in  distin¬ 
guishing  the  stars,  I  have  drawn  up  the  following  list  of  stars, 
chiefly  of  the  first  and  second  magnitudes,  stating  the  periods 
of  the  year  when  they  come  to  the  meridian,  or  due  south,  at 
nine  oPclock  in  the  evening. 

Caph  in  Cassiopeia,  and  Jllpheratz  and  Algenib ,  in  Pegasus, 
come  to  the  meridian  on  the  10 th  of  November,  at  nine  o’clock 
in  the  evening.  Caph  is  near  the  zenith,  and  the  other  two  at 
a  considerably  lower  elevation.  At  this  time,  Capella  appears 
towards  the  north-east ;  the  Pleiades,  Aldebaran,  and  Orion,  in 
the  east;  Deneb,  in  Cygnus,  in  the  north-west;  Lyra,  west- 
north-west  ;  and  Altair,  in  Aquila,  west  by  south. 

Arietis ,  or  the  first  star  of  Aries,  comes  to  the  meridian  on 
the  5th  of  December.  The  same  stars  noticed  in  the  preceding 
instance  are  still  visible,  but  those  on  the  east  of  the  meridian 
have  risim  to  a  higher  altitude,  and  those  on  the  west  have 


358  PERIODS  OF  THE  YEAR  WHEN  THE 

descended  to  a  lower  elevation  than  on  Nov.  10.  Castor  and 
Pollux  are  at  this  time  seen  towards  the  north-east,  and  Pro- 
cyon,  a  very  little  above  the  eastern  point  of  the  horizon. 

Menkar ,  in  the  head  of  the  Whale,  arrives  at  the  meridian 
on  the  21  st  of  December ,  and  at  the  same  time  the  variable 
star  Jilgol ,  in  Medusa’s  head,  which  is  37°  due  north  of  Men¬ 
kar.  Altair  has  now  disappeared  from  the  west,  and  Sirius  is 
seen  at  a  small  elevation  in  the  south-east. 

The  Pleiades  pass  the  meridian  on  the  lsi  of  January ,  and 
Aldebaran  on  the  10th.  When  Aldebaran  is  due  south,  Ca- 
pella  is  north  by  east  of  it  near  the  zenith  ;  Cor  Caroli,  at  a 
low  altitude  near  the  north-east ;  Lyra,  near  the  horizon  N. 
by  W. ;  Regulus,  in  the  east;  and  the  head  of  Hydra,  east  by 
south. 

Bellatrix ,  in  Orion,  passes  the  meridian  on  the  21  st  of 
January.  Nearly  at  the  same  time  Capella  and  j3  Aurigae  are 
on  the  meridian.  These  three  stars  are  nearly  equidistant  in 
a  line  running  north  and  south. 

Castor  and  Pollux ,  and  Procyon.  These  stars  pass  the 
meridian  nearly  at  the  same  time,  on  the  2Mh  of  February . 
Pollux  and  Procyon  culminate  nearly  at  the  same  instant,  and 
Castor  about  11  minutes  before  them,  at  which  time  Procyon 
is  23°  south  of  Pollux.  Orion^  is  then  in  a  south-westerly 
direction  ;  Aldebaran,  midway  between  the  meridian  and  the 
western  horizon ;  Menkar,  W.  by  S.,  at  a  small  elevation  ; 
Sirius,  S.  by  W. ;  and  Capella  to  the  west  of  the  zenith.  On 
the  east  of  the  meridian,  Regulus  is  S.E. ;  Denebola,  E. ;  Cor 
Caroli,  E.N.E. ;  immediately  below  which,  near  the  horizon, 
is  Arcturus. 

Prcesepe ,  in  Cancer,  a  small  cluster  of  stars,  just  perceptible 
to  the  naked  eye,  like  a  nebula,  approaches  the  meridian 
about  the  3 d  of  March,  at  an  altitude  of  about  60°.  They  are 
N.E.  of  Procyon,  and  S.E.  of  Pollux.  (See  pp.  149 — 151.) 

Regulus ,  in  Leo,  passes  the  meridian  on  the  6th  of  April. 
At  this  time,  Alphard ,  in  Hydra,  is  past  the  meridian  S.  by  E. 
from  Regulus  ;  Procyon,  S.W. ;  Sirius,  S.W.  near  the  horizon ; 
Orion,  very  low  in  the  west ;  Algenib,  in  Perseus,  Algol,  Ca¬ 
pella,  &c.,  towards  the  N.W.  On  the  east,  Denebola  appears 
E.  from  Regulus  ;  Spica  Virginis,  S.E.  at  a  low  altitude ;  Cor 
Caroli,  E.  at  a  high  altitude  ;  Corona  Borealis,  E.  by  N. ;  and 
Lyra,  at  a  low  altitude  N.E.  by  N.  The  Great  Bear,  at  a  high 
altitude,  approaching  the  zenith,  and  Cassiopeia,  at  a  low  alti¬ 
tude  towards  the  north. 

Denebola ,  in  Leo,  culminates  on  the  3rd  of  May ,  at  an  alti¬ 
tude  of  43°.  Regulus  is  25°  west  of  it,  and  Phad ,  in  the 


PRINCIPAL  STARS  PASS  THE  MERIDIAN. 


359 


square  of  the  Great  Bear,  is  39°  N.  of  it.  It  forms  with  these 
two  a  large  right-angled  triangle,  the  right  angle  being  at 
Denebola.  It  is  nearly  on  the  meridian  with  Phad.  Other 
stars  then  visible  are — Procyon,  W.  by  S.;  Capella,  N.W.; 
Arcturus,  E.;  Spica  Virginis,  S.S.E.;  Lyra,  N.E.,  &c. 

Coma  Berenices ,  a  beautiful  cluster  of  small  stars,  but 
scarcely  distinguishable  by  moonlight,  is  on  the  meridian  on 
the  13  th  of  May.  (See  p.  149.) 

Spica  Virginis  comes  to  the  meridian  on  the  23rd  of  May. 
Stars  visible  on  the  west — Capella,  Castor  and  Pollux,  and 
Procyon,  near  the  western  point.  On  the  east — Lyra,  Arc¬ 
turus,  Ras  Algethi,  Ras  Alhague,  and  Altair,  near  the  eastern 
horizon.  Near  the  meridian  to  the  west — Cor  Caroli,  Alioth 
and  Mizar,  in  Ursa  Major. 

Arcturus  is  on  the  meridian  on  the  23rd  of  June.  The 
principal  stars  in  Libra  culminate  at  a  lower  altitude  about  the 
beginning  of  July. 

Corona  Borealis  is  on  the  meridian  about  the  lsi  of  July 
Its  principal  star  is  eleven  degrees  east  of  s  Bootes. 

Antares ,  in  Scorpio,  passes  the  meridian  on  the  10 th  of  July , 
at  a  very  low  altitude. 

Ras  Algethi ,  in  Ophiuchus,  and  Ras  Alhague ,  in  Hercules, 
5°  apart,  culminate  about  the  28 th  of  July ,  nearly  at  the  same 
time  as  the  head  of  Draco. 

Vega ,  or  a  Lyrae,  culminates  on  the  13 th  of  August.  To 
the  west  of  it,  at  a  great  distance,  is  Arcturus,  and  to  the 
north-west,  Cor  Caroli.  Capella  is  N.  by  E.  at  a  low  altitude  ; 
Altair,  S.S.E.;  and  Deneb  Cygni,  E.  at  a  high  altitude. 

Altair ,  in  Aquila,  is  at  the  meridian  about  the  30 th  of  Au~ 
gust ,  at  an  altitude  of  about  46|°. 

Arided ,  or  Deneb  Cygni ,  is  on  the  meridian  on  the  1 6th  of 
September ,  at  an  altitude  of  82|°.  At  this  time,  Arcturus  is 
W.S.W.,  near  the  horizon ;  Lyra  and  Etanin ,  in  Draco,  west 
from  the  meridian,  but  in  a  high  elevation  ;  Cor  Caroli,  N.W., 
at  no  great  elevation  ;  Hercules,  S.W.,  midway  between  the 
meridian  and  the  horizon ;  Altair,  a  little  distance  west  of  the 
S. ;  and  the  Dolphin  on  the  meridian ;  the  square  of  Pegasus 
in  a  south-eastern  direction,  Aries  in  the  east,  and  Capella 
towards  the  north-east. 

All  the  stars  specified  above,  at  the  periods  of  the  year 
stated,  pass  the  meridian  (or  culminate)  at  nine  o^clock  in  the 
evening.  Therefore,  if  at  any  one  of  the  periods  of  the  year 
here  specified,  or  a  few  days  before  or  after  it,  an  observer,  at 
nine  o’clock  p.m.,  observe  the  principal  star  or  stars  near  the 
meridian,  he  can  scarcely  be  at  a  loss  to  recognise  them,  as 


360 


EXPLANATION  OF  TERMS. 


well  as  some  of  the  other  principal  stars  and  constellations 
on  the  east  and  west  of  the  meridian,  which  are  also  specified 
in  the  above  descriptions.  A  person  can  never  become  fami¬ 
liar  with  the  more  prominent  stars,  the  relative  position  of  the 
different  constellations,  and  the  general  aspect  of  the  heavens, 
without  actual  observations.  Even  the  delineations  on  the 
celestial  globe  will  not  convey  an  accurate  and  impressive 
conception  of  the  scenery  of  the  heavens,  unless  the  study  of 
these  delineations  be  accompanied  with  frequent  surveys  of 
the  heavens  themselves.  It  is  hoped  the  preceding  descrip¬ 
tions  will  afford  some  assistance  to  those  young  observers 
and  others  who  wish  to  contemplate  the  sublime  objects  of 
creation  with  their  own  eyes. 

N.B.  In  the  above  and  the  following  descriptions  of  celes¬ 
tial  phenomena,  altitude  signifies  the  height  of  the  star  or 
planet  above  the  horizon  ;  S.S.E.,  south-south-east ;  N.  by  E., 
north  by  east,  &c.  Degrees  are  marked  thus  °,  minutes  \ 
seconds  " :  thus,  54°  27'  35'',  expresses  fifty-four  degrees , 
twenty-seven  minutes  of  a  degree,  and  thirty-five  seconds. 
Every  degree  contains  60  minutes,  every  minute  60  seconds, 
Sec.  When  a  heavenly  body  is  said  to  culminate ,  the  mean¬ 
ing  is,  that  it  has  arrived  at  the  highest  point  of  its  course,  or 
its  passage  over  the  meridian.  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
Latin  word  cuhnen ,  the  top  or  summit.  An  occultation  signi¬ 
fies  the  obscuration  of  a  star  or  planet  by  the  interposition  of 
the  moon,  or  of  another  planet.  Conjunction  is  when  two  or 
more  stars  or  planets  are  in  the  same  part  of  the  heavens ; 
and  opposition ,  when  they  are  180°  asunder,  or  in  opposite 
parts  of  the  heavens. 


PHENOMENA  OF  THE  PLANETS  FOR  1840.  361 


PHENOMENA  OF  THE  PLANETS  FOR  THE  YEARS 

1840  &  1841. 

I.  POSITIONS  ETC.  OF  THE  PLANETS  FOR  1840. 

1.  The  Planet  Mercury. 

This  planet  can  be  distinctly  seen  by  the  naked  eye  only 
about  the  time  of  its  greatest  elongation ;  and  to  those  who 
reside  in  high  northern  latitudes  it  will  scarcely  be  visible 
even  at  such  periods,  if  it  be  near  the  utmost  point  of  its 
southern  declination. 

The  following  are  the  periods  of  its  greatest  elongation  for 
1840 :  On  the  8th  of  January,  it  is  at  its  western  elongation, 
when  it  is  23°  19'  west  of  the  sun,  and  will  be  seen  in  the 
morning  near  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  horizon ;  but  as  it 
is  then  21°  45'  in  southern  declination,  and  this  declination 
every  day  on  the  increase,  its  position  at  that  time  will  not  be 
favourable  for  observation.  Its  next  greatest  elongation  is  on 
the  20th  of  March,  when  it  will  be  18J  degrees  east  of  the 
sun,  and  be  seen  in  the  evening  soon  after  sunset.  This  will 
form  one  of  the  most  favourable  opportunities  of  perceiving 
this  planet  by  the  naked  eye,  or  by  means  of  a  small  opera- 
glass.  Its  declination  being  above  nine  degrees  north,  and  on 
the  increase,  it  will  be  distinctly  seen  for  about  ten  days — 
namely,  from  the  16th  to  the  26th  of  March,  a  little  to  the 
north  of  the  western  point  of  the  horizon,  not  far  from  the 
point  at  which  the  sun  sets  at  that  period.  On  the  5th  of 
May,  it  will  again  reach  its  greatest  western  elongation,  when 
it  will  be  seen  in  the  morning  before  sunrise.  Its  declination 
is  then  4J  degrees  north,  and  western  elongation  from  the 
sun,  26°  18;.  At  this  period,  about  four  o’clock  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  it  may  be  seen  for  more  than  three  weeks,- — namely,  from 
about  the  20th  of  April  to  the  25th  of  May,  Its  direction 
will  be  nearly  due  east.  This  would  form  the  most  favour¬ 
able  opportunity  of  viewing  this  planet,  were  it  not  that  the 
strong  twilight  at  this  season  has  a  tendency  to  overpower  its 
light. 

In  the  month  of  July,  if  the  long  twilight  do  not  prevent, 
there  will  be  another  favourable  opportunity  of  inspecting  this 
planet.  During  the  whole  of  this  month,  Mercury  will  be  at 
Vol.  VIII.  31 


S62 


THE  PLANET  VENUS. 


a  considerable  distance  from  the  sun ;  but  the  best  time  for 
observation  will  be  from  the  middle  till  the  end  of  the  month, 
as  the  twilight  will  then  be  less  intense.  It  arrives  at  the 
point  of  its  greatest  eastern  elongation  on  the  18th,  when  it 
is  nearly  27°  from  the  sun,  and  will  be  seen  in  the  evening  a 
little  to  the  north  of  the  western  point  of  the  compass,  about 
forty  minutes  after  sunset,  or  nearly  nine  o’clock  p.  m  Its 
next  greatest  western  elongation  will  be  on  the  1st  of  Sep¬ 
tember,  when  it  is  18°  5 1  west  of  the  sun.  At  this  period,  it 
may  be  seen  in  the  morning  before  five  o’clock,  in  a  direction 
nearly  east  by  north,  from  the  27th  of  August  to  the  5th  of 
September.  On  the  12th  of  November,  it  is  at  its  next  eastern 
elongation,  when  it  will  be  seen  after  sunset  near  the  south¬ 
western  point  of  the  horizon;  but  as  its  southern  declination 
is  at  this  time  about  25  degrees,  it  will  descend  below  the 
horizon  nearly  at  the  same  time  with  the  sun.  The  next 
elongation  is  on  the  21st  of  December,  when  it  is  21°  50' 
west  of  the  sun,  and  will  be  seen  in  the  morning  between 
seven  and  eight,  near  the  south-east  quarter  of  the  horizon. 

The  periods  most  favourable  for  detecting  this  planet  in  the 
evenings  are,  March  20th  and  July  18th  ;  and  in  the  mornings , 
May  5th  and  September  1st.  During  the  interval  of  a  week 
or  ten  days,  both  before  and  after  the  time  of  its  greatest 
elongation,  and  sometimes  for  three  or  four  weeks  in  suc¬ 
cession,  when  in  high  north  declination,  this  planet  may 
generally  be  seen  in  a  clear  sky  when  in  such  favourable  po¬ 
sitions  as  those  now  stated.  In  those  regions  of  the  globe 
which  lie  south  of  the  equator,  the  planet  will  be  in  the  most 
favourable  position  for  observation  when  in  south  declination. 

2.  The  Planet  Venus. 

This  planet,  like  Mercury,  is  seen  alternately,  in  the  even¬ 
ing  towards  the  western  quarter  of  the  heavens,  and  in  the 
morning  towards  the  eastern  quarter.  In  its  lustre  it  exceeds 
all  the  other  stars  and  planets,  and  its  brilliancy  is  such  that 
it  can  scarcely  be  mistaken  by  any  observer  when  its  position 
in  the  heavens  is  pointed  out. 

Venus  will  be  seen  only  in  the  morning  from  the  beginning 
of  the  year  till  the  end  of  July.  During  the  months  of  January, 
February,  and  March,  it  will  be  seen  before  sunrise,  chiefly  in 
the  south-eastern  quarter  of  the  heavens.  Throughout  April, 
May,  June,  and  July,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  eastern  and  north¬ 
eastern  parts  of  the  heavens.  During  the  whole  of  this  period, 
it  will  appear,  when  viewed  with  a  telescope,  either  as  a  half- 


THE  PLANET  MARS. 


363 


moon  or  with  a  gibbous  phase.  Its  superior  conjunction  with 
the  sun  happens  on  the  morning  of  the  25th  of  July,  after 
which  it  becomes  an  evening  star;  but  it  will  not  be  much 
noticed  by  common  observers  till  about  the  beginning  or  mid¬ 
dle  of  September,  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  sun 
From  this  period  it  will  continue  to  be  seen  in  the  evening 
chiefly  in  the  south-western  part  of  the  sky,  at  a  low  elevation, 
till  the  end  of  the  year.  On  the  whole,  this  planet  will  not 
be  very  conspicuous  during  1840,  either  to  the  eye  of  a  com¬ 
mon  observer  or  for  telescopic  observation.  From  the  begin¬ 
ning  of  September  to  the  end  of  December,  it  will  exhibit  a 
gibbous  phase,  like  the  moon  about  three  or  four  days  before 
the  full. 

Venus  will  be  in  conjunction  with  Saturn  on  the  22d  of 
January,  at  2h  8'  p.  m.,  when  it  will  be  571  north  of  Saturn. 
It  will  be  in  conjunction  with  Mars  on  the  16th  of  June,  at 
sixteen  minutes  past  three  in  the  morning,  when  Mars  will  be 
46'  north  of  Venus  ;  and  it  will  be  in  conjunction  with  Jupi¬ 
ter  on  the  22d  of  October,  at  8h  34;  p.  m.,  when  it  will  be  1°  Of 
south  of  that  planet. 

3.  The  Planet  Mars. 

This  planet  will  not  be  very  conspicuous  during  this  year 
on  account  of  its  great  distance  from  the  earth,  and  its  proxi¬ 
mity  to  that  part  of  the  heavens  in  which  the  sun  appears.  It 
is  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  on  the  4th  of  May,  after  which 
it  will  be  a  considerable  time  before  it  become  conspicuous  to 
the  unassisted  eye.  Throughout  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  and  the  latter  part  of  July,  it  will  be  seen  early  in 
the  morning,  before  sunrise,  near  the  north-eastern  quarter  of 
the  heavens.  From  September  till  the  end  of  the  year,  it  will 
appear  somewhat  more  conspicuous,  but  not  exceeding  in  ap¬ 
parent  size  a  star  of  the  third  magnitude.  On  the  1st  of  Octo¬ 
ber  it  comes  to  the  meridian  at  six  minutes  past  nine  in  the 
morning,  at  an  altitude  of  52|°  above  the  southern  horizon. 
On  the  1st  of  November,  it  passes  the  meridian  at  fourteen 
minutes  past  eight  in  the  morning,  at  an  altitude  of  about  46°; 
and  on  the  1st  of  December,  it  transits  the  meridian  at  nine¬ 
teen  minutes  past  seven  in  the  morning,  at  an  altitude  of  39§°, 
At  this  time  (1st  of  December,)  it  rises  nearly  due  east  about 
one  in  the  morning  and  will  be  pretty  distinguishable  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  ruddy  aspect  about  an  hour  before  sunrise. 


364  THE  PLANETS  VESTA,  JUNO,  CERES,  AND  PALLAS. 

4.  The  Planets  Vesta,  Juno ,  Ceres,  and  Pallas. 

These  planets  are  not  perceptible  by  the  naked  eye.  The 
best  time  for  observing  them  with  telescopes  is  when  they  are 
at  or  near  the  period  of  opposition  to  the  sun,  when  they  are 
nearest  the  earth.  Even  then  it  will  be  sometimes  difficult  to 
detect  them  without  the  assistance  of  transit  or  equatorial 
instruments. 

Vesta  will  be  in  opposition  on  the  18th  of  May,  when  it 
will  pass  the  meridian  at  midnight,  at  an  elevation  above  the 
horizon  of  27°  34|h  Its  right  ascension  is  then  15h  5  V  55|' , 
and  its  declination,  10°  2 5|'  south.  This  planet  will  be  in 
conjunction  with  the  star  £  Librae  on  the  1st  of  March,  at 
twenty-seven  minutes  past  five  in  the  morning,  the  star  being 
55r  north  of  Vesta;  it  will  likewise  be  in  conjunction  with  the 
same  star  on  the  15th  of  May,  at  noon,  when  the  star  will  be 
29'  south  of  the  planet.  On  the  19th  of  July,  at  six  in  the 
morning,  it  will  be  in  conjunction  with  y1  Librae,  when  the 
star  will  be  only  one  minute  south  of  the  planet,  so  that  they 
will  both  appear  in  the  same  field  of  the  telescope.  On  the 
26th  of  August,  at  nineteen  minutes  past  eight  a.  m.,  it  will  be 
in  conjunction  with  v  Scorpio,  when  the  star  will  be  only  IV 
south  of  Vesta.  On  September  3d,  at  eight  in  the  evening, 
it  will  be  in  conjunction  with  4-  Ophiuchi,  the  star  IV  north 
of  the  planet.  On  the  2d  of  October,  at  half-past  one  in  the 
morning,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  Saturn,  being  1°  2'  south 
of  that  planet;  and  on  the  6th  of  December,  at  ten  minutes 
past  one  in  the  morning,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  Venus,  Vesta 
being  only  IV  north  of  Venus. 

Pallas  will  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun  on  the  5th  of  July, 
at  thirty  minutes  past  nine  in  the  evening.  Right  ascension, 
18°  44'  52"  ;  north  declination,  22°  1 V  37".  It  will  pass  the 
meridian  about  midnight,  at  an  altitude  of  about  60°  111'. 

Ceres  wall  be  in  opposition  July  17th,  at  six  in  the  morn¬ 
ing.  Right  ascension,  19°  54' ;  south  declination,  30°  8'.  It 
will  pass  the  meridian  at  an  elevation  somewhat  less  than  8°. 

Juno  will  not  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun  during  1840. 

That  the  best  time  for  observing  these  bodies  is  at  the  pe¬ 
riod  of  their  opposition  will  appear  from  the  following  con¬ 
sideration  that  they  are  between  two  and  three  times  nearer 
the  earth  at  the  time  of  opposition  than  when  near  the  period 
of  their  conjunction  with  the  sun;  for  example,  Vesta  is  225 
millions  of  miles  distant  from  the  sun,  and  consequently  only 
130  millions  distant  from  the  earth  at  the  time  of  opposition ; 
but  at  the  conjunction,  it  is  the  whole  diameter  of  the  earth’s 


THE  PLANET  JUPITER. 


365 


orbit  —  190  millions  of  miles,  further  distant, — that  is,  320 
millions  of  miles,  which  is  a  distance  about  two  and  a  half 
times  greater  than  when  it  is  in  opposition. 

5.  The  Planet  Jupiter. 

During  the  months  of  January,  February,  March,  and  April, 
this  planet  will  be  seen  chiefly  in  the  morning.  About  the 
beginning  of  February,  it  will  rise  in  a  direction  south-east 
by  east,  about  half-past  one  in  the  morning,  and  will  come  to 
the  meridian,  at  a  quarter-past  six  in  the  morning,  at  an  eleva¬ 
tion  of  about  22°  above  the  southern  horizon.  On  the  1st  of 
March,  it  will  rise  about  eight  minutes  before  midnight,  and 
pass  the  meridian  about  half-past  four  in  the  morning.  On 
the  1st  of  April,  it  will  rise  at  forty-three  minutes  past  nine  in 
the  evening,  and  pass  the  meridian  at  a  quarter-past  two  in  the 
morning.  It  will  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun,  and  conse¬ 
quently  nearest  the  earth,  on  the  4th  of  May,  when  it  will 
rise  between  seven  and  eight  in  the  evening.  From  this  pe¬ 
riod  till  the  middle  of  November,  when  it  is  nearly  in  con¬ 
junction  with  the  sun,  it  will  be  visible  as  an  evening  star, 
when  it  will  be  seen  at  different  periods,  chiefly  in  the  south¬ 
eastern,  the  southern,  and  the  south-western  parts  of  the  hea¬ 
vens,  at  a  comparatively  low  altitude  ;  but  it  will  not  be  much 
noticed  by  the  naked  eye  after  the  end  of  September  on  ac¬ 
count  of  its  southern  declination,  which,  for  a  considerable 
time,  will  be  gradually  increasing.  Towards  the  end  of  De¬ 
cember  it  will  again  be  seen  in  the  morning  near  the  south¬ 
eastern  quarter  of  the  horizon.  The  best  time  for  telescopic 
observations  on  this  planet  will  be  from  the  beginning  of 
April  till  the  beginning  of  September. 

Jupiter  will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  star  a.2  Librae  on  the. 
15th  of  May,  at  forty-three  minutes  past  three  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  when  the  star  will  appear  one  degree  south  of  Jupiter ; 
and  on  the  27th  of  August,  at  a  quarter-past  two  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  it  will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  same  star,  when 
it  will  be  34'  below  Jupiter.  On  the  21st  of  November,  at 
4h  34'  p.m.,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  the  sun.  On  March  5th, 
at  three  in  the  morning,  all  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  will  be  on 
the  east  of  the  planet,  when  viewed  with  a  telescope  having 
an  erect  eye-piece,  and  in  the  order  of  their  distances  from 
Jupiter.  The  same  phenomenon  will  happen  on  the  8th  of 
June,  at  thirty  minutes  past  eleven  in  the  evening ;  on  the 
1st  of  August,  at  half-past  eight  in  the  evening;  on  the  27th 
of  August,  at  the  same  hour,  but  on  the  west  of  J upiter ;  on 

31* 


366 


THE  PLANET  SATURN. 


the  20th  of  September,  at  seven  p.m.,  on  the  east  of  Jupiter; 
and  on  the  16th  of  October,  at  six  p.m.,  on  the  west  of  Jupiter. 

This  planet  can  scarcely  be  mistaken,  even  by  a  common 
observer,  when  the  quarter  of  the  heavens  in  which  it  is  visible 
is  known,  as  it  is  next  to  Venus  in  apparent  magnitude  and 
splendour.  It  will  appear  most  brilliant  about  the  end  of 
April  and  the  beginning  of  May. 

6.  The  Planet  Saturn. 

This  planet  was  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  on  the  6th  of 
December,  1839;  and  therefore  it  will  not  be  before  the 
month  of  February  this  year  that  it  will  be  in  a  favourable 
position  for  telescopic  observation.  During  the  months  of 
February,  March,  and  April,  it  will  be  seen  only  in  the  morn¬ 
ing  before  sunrise,  in  the  south-eastern  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
at  a  comparatively  low  altitude.  On  the  1st  of  February,  it  rises 
at  half-past  four  in  the  morning,  and  comes  to  the  meridian 
about  half-past  eight,  at  an  elevation  of  about  16|°.  On  the 
1st  of  March,  it  rises  at  forty  minutes  past  two  in  the  morning ; 
on  the  1st  of  April,  at  forty-two  minutes  past  twelve,  mid¬ 
night  ;  and  on  the  first  of  May,  it  rises  at  forty  minutes  past 
ten  in  the  evening.  It  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun  on  the  8th 
of  June  ;  after  which  it  will  be  seen  in  the  evening.  During 
the  greater  part  of  the  month  of  May,  it  will  likewise  be  seen 
between  ten  in  the  evening  and  midnight,  but  at  a  low  altitude. 
It  will  continue  to  be  visible  till  the  month  of  December,  but 
it  will  be  difficult  to  distinguish  it  after  the  month  of  Oc¬ 
tober,  on  account  of  its  low  altitude  and  its  proximity  to  the 
sun.  It  arrives  at  the  point  of  its  conjunction  with  the  sun 
on  the  15th  of  December.  The  most  favourable  times  and 
positions  for  taking  telescopic  views  of  this  planet  will  be 
during  the  months  of  May,  June,  July,  August,  and  September, 
especially  when  it  is  on  or  near  the  meridian.  During  the 
latter  part  of  August  and  the  months  of  October  and  Novem¬ 
ber,  about  an  hour  after  sunset,  it  will  be  seen  towards  the 
south-western  quarter  of  the  heavens,  at  a  comparatively  small 
elevation  above  the  horizon. 

This  planet  is  not  distinguished  for  its  brilliancy  to  the 
naked  eye ;  but  it  exhibits  a  most  striking  and  beautiful  ap¬ 
pearance  through  a  good  telescope ;  more  so  than  any  other 
planet  of  our  system.  It  appears  of  a  dull  leaden  colour  when 
viewed  by  the  naked  eye,  and  is  not  easily  distinguished  from 
a  fixed  star  except  by  the  steadiness  of  its  light,  never  pre¬ 
senting  a  twinkling  appearance  as  the  stars  do;  and  from 


THE  PLANET  URANUS. 


367 


which  circumstance  it  may  be  distinguished  from  neighbour¬ 
ing  stars.  It  will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  star  Rho  Ophiu- 
chi  on  the  5th  of  June,  at  51  minutes  past  8  p.m.,  when  the 
star  will  be  about  half  a  degree  north  of  the  planet.  It  will 
likewise  be  in  conjunction  with  the  same  star  on  the  27th  of 
October,  at  9h  36'  p.m.,  when  the  star  will  be  fifty-four  minutes 
of  a  degree  north  of  the  planet.  During  this  year  the  rings 
of  Saturn  will  appear  to  the  greatest  advantage,  the  openings 
of  these  rings  being  then  at  their  utmost  extent.  In  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  October,  the  proportion  of  the  longer  axis  to  the 
transverse  axis  of  the  rings  is  nearly  as  35  to  16. 

7.  The  Planet  Uranus. 

This  planet  is  for  the  most  part  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  best  time  for  detecting  it  by  means  of  a  telescope  is  when 
it  is  at  or  near  the  period  of  its  opposition  to  the  sun,  which 
happens  this  year  on  the  morning  of  the  11th  of  September. 
At  that  time  it  passes  the  meridian  about  midnight,  at  an  ele¬ 
vation  of  about  32|°  above  the  horizon.  On  the  1st  of  Au¬ 
gust,  it  passes  the  meridian  at  forty  minutes  past  two  in  the 
morning  \  on  the  1st  of  October,  at  thirty-two  minutes  past 
ten  in  the  evening  ;  on  the  first  of  November,  at  twenty-seven 
minutes  past  eight ;  and  on  the  1st  of  December,  at  twenty- 
eight  minutes  past  six,  in  the  evening.  Its  right  ascension,  or 
distance  from  the  first  point  of  Aries  at  its  opposition,  Sep¬ 
tember  11,  is  23h  18'*,  and  its  south  declination,  5°  20'  26". 
It  rises  during  the  year  at  points  a  little  to  the  southward  of 
the  eastern  point  of  the  compass.  It  is  in  conjunction  with 
the  moon  on  the  9th  of  January,  at  2h  17'  p.m.,  when  it  is  1° 
27'  south  of  the  moon.  It  is  in  conjunction  with  Mars  on 
the  16th  of  February,  at  llh  33'  p.m.,  when  Uranus  is  only 
nine  minutes  of  a  degree  to  the  north  of  Mars ;  so  that  the 
two  planets  would  be  seen  at  the  same  time  in  the  field  of  the 
telescope,  were  not  both  these  bodies  rather  too  near  the  sun 
at  that  time  for  distinct  observation.  It  is  in  conjunction  with 
the  sun  on  the  6th  of  March,  and  with  the  moon  on  the  31st, 
when  it  is  2°  V  south  of  the  moon.  It  is  in  conjunction  with 
Venus  on  the  6th  of  April,  at  seven  in  the  morning,  when  it  is 
40'  north  of  Venus.  On  the  25th  of  May,  at  forty-five  mi¬ 
nutes  past  nine  in  the  evening,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  the 
moon,  when  it  is  2°  39'  south  of  that  luminary.  On  the  15th 
of  August,  at  3h  15'  p.m.,  it  is  again  in  conjunction  with  the 
moon,  when  it  is  3°  9'  south  of  that  luminary.  On  the  11th 
of  September,  at  8h  42'  p.m.  ;  and  on  the  9th  of  October,  at 


368 


THE  PLANET  MERCURY. 


four  in  the  morning,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  the  moon,  and 
in  both  cases  it  is  then  about  3°  south  of  the  moon. 

N.B.  In  the  preceding  statements,  the  observer  is  supposed 
to  be  in  52°  north  latitude.  In  places  a  few  degrees  to  the 
north  or  south  of  this  latitude,  a  certain  allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  times  of  rising  and  the  altitudes  which  are  here 
specified.  To  those  who  reside  in  lower  latitudes  than  52° 
the  altitudes  of  the  different  bodies  will  be  higher ,  and  to 
those  in  higher  latitudes  the  altitudes  will  be  lower  than  those 
which  are  here  specified.  For  example;  when  it  is  stated 
that  Saturn  comes  to  the  meridian  at  an  altitude  of  16|°, 
this  planet  will  pass  the  meridian  of  a  place  in  42°  N. 
latitude,  at  an  altitude  of  26|°,  and  the  meridian  of  a  place  in 
62°  N.  latitude,  at  an  altitude  of  only  6|-°.  There  being  10° 
of  difference  in  the  latitude  of  the  supposed  places,  the  altitude 
of  the  heavenly  body  will  be  10°  higher  in  the  one  case,  and 
10°  lower  in  the  other. 


II.  POSITIONS  OF  THE  PLANETS  FOR  1841. 

1.  Mercury. 

This  planet  is  at  its  superior  conjunction  with  the  sun  on 
the  5th  of  February,  and  at  its  greatest  elongation  on  the  4th 
of  March,  when  it  is  18°  S'  east  of  that  luminary ;  it  will 
therefore  appear  as  an  evening  star,  in  a  direction  nearly  due 
west,  a  little  above  the  horizon,  after  sunset,  between  six  and 
seven  in  the  evening.  It  arrives  at  its  inferior  conjunction 
with  the  sun  on  the  20th  March.  Its  next  greatest  western 
elongation  happens  on  the  17th  of  April,  when  it  is  27°  2V 
west  of  that  luminary.  The  planet  will  be  seen  about  ten  or 
twelve  days  before  and  after  this  time  in  an  easterly  direction, 
between  three  and  four  in  the  morning.  Its  next  superior 
conjunction  is  on  the  26th  of  May ;  and  its  next  greatest 
eastern  elongation,  on  the  30th  of  June,  when  it  is  25°  49 
east  of  the  sun,  and  consequently  will  be  visible  in  the  even¬ 
ing,  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  after  sunset.  This  would 
form  one  of  the  most  favourable  opportunities  of  seeing  this 
planet,  as  it  is  then  in  a  high  north  declination,  were  it  not  that 
the  strong  twilight  at  this  season  prevents  small  objects  in  the 
heavens  from  being  easily  distinguished.  Its  next  greatest 
elongation  is  on  August  15th,  when  it  is  18°  37;  west  of  the 


THE  TLANET  VENUS. 


369 


sun,  when  it  will  be  seen  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  about 
four  in  the  morning'.  It  is  again  at  its  greatest  eastern  elonga¬ 
tion  on  the  25th  of  October,  when  it  is  nearly  24°  east  of  the 
sun.  It  will  be  near  the  south-western  part  of  the  sky  about 
sunset ;  but  its  great  southern  declination  at  that  period  will 
prevent  it  from  being  easily  distinguishable.  On  the  3rd  of 
December,  it  will  reach  the  point  of  its  greatest  western 
elongation,  w’hen  it  is  20J°  west  of  the  sun ;  when  it  may  be 
seen  for  a  week  before  and  after  this  time,  about  seven  in  the 
morning,  in  a  direction  a  little  to  the  north  of  the  south-east 
point  of  the  compass,  at  a  low  altitude. 

2.  Venus. 

Venus  will  this  year  exhibit  a  more  frequent  and  brilliant 
appearance  to  common  observers  than  in  1840.  It  will  be 
an  evening  star,  first  in  the  south-western,  next  in  the  western, 
and  afterwards  in  the  north-western  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
during  the  months  of  January,  February,  March,  April,  and 
the  beginning  of  May.  During  the  greater  part  of  January,  it 
will  appear  nearly  in  a  south-westerly  direction,  and  W.S.W. 
Throughout  February,  it  will  appear  nearly  west,  and  west 
by  north.  Throughout  March,  April,  and  the  beginning  of 
May,  it  will  be  seen  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  will  be 
visible  in  a  pretty  high  elevation  above  the  western  horizon, 
and  will  continue  for  the  most  part  nearly  three  hours  above 
the  horizon  after  sunset.  Its  greatest  brilliancy  is  about  the 
8th  of  April,  when  it  appears  in  a  crescent  form.  When 
viewed  by  the  telescope  in  January,  it  will  present  a  gibbous 
phase,  like  the  moon  four  or  five  days  before  or  after  the  full. 
In  February  and  March,  it  will  be  in  the  form  of  a  half -moon  , 
in  April  and  the  beginning  of  May,  it  will  assume  the  figure 
of  a  crescent ;  this  crescent  will  appear  more  and  more  slen¬ 
der,  but  more  expansive,  till  within  a  few  days  of  its  inferior 
conjunction  with  the  sun,  which  takes  place  on  the  15th  of 
May,  about  one  in  the  morning.  After  this  period,  this  planet 
will  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye  only  in  the  morning  before 
sunrise,  in  an  easterly  and  north-easterly  direction,  till  the  end 
of  the  year ;  but  with  an  equatorial  telescope  it  may  be  dis¬ 
tinctly  seen  every  clear  day,  even  at  noon,  during  its  whole 
course  from  one  conjunction  to  another,  with  the  exception 
of  only  two  or  three  weeks  in  the  course  of  nineteen  months. 
Its  greatest  brilliancy,  after  passing  its  inferior  conjunction,  is 
about  the  20th  of  June ;  previous  to  which  it  will  appear  as 


370 


THE  PLANET  VENUS. 


a  crescent,  and  will  afterwards  gradually  assume  a  half-moon 
and  a  gibbous  phase. 

Venus,  in  its  course  throughout  this  year,  will  pass  very 
near  some  of  the  other  planets  and  some  of  the  fixed  stars. 
The  following  table  exhibits  the  times  and  circumstances  ol 
those  conjunctions  in  which  Venus  makes  the  nearest  approach 
to  some  of  these  bodies  : — 


Time  of  Conjunction. 


h.  m. 


1. 

Jan. 

12  .  .  . 

11  11  A.M. 

2. 

— 

25  .  .  _ 

1  25  A.M. 

3. 

Feb. 

18  .  .  . 

7  46  A.M. 

4. 

March 

22  .  .  . 

0  11  A.M. 

5. 

April 

7  .  .  . 

6  56  A.M. 

6. 

— 

23  .  .  . 

6  31  P.M. 

7. 

July 

12  .  .  . 

7  43  A.M. 

8. 

— 

12  .  .  . 

3  52  P.M. 

9. 

. — — 

13  .  .  . 

1  4  A.M. 

JO. 

— 

24  .  .  . 

3  40  A.M. 

11. 

— - 

31  .  .  . 

11  15  A.M. 

12. 

August 

4  .  .  . 

9  25  A.M. 

13. 

— 

6  .  .  . 

1  26  P.M. 

14. 

• - 

12  .  .  . 

3  53  A.M. 

15. 

— 

19  .  .  . 

7  12  P.M. 

16. 

Sept. 

10  .  .  . 

2  45  A.M. 

17. 

— 

12  .  .  . 

7  50  A.M. 

18. 

— 

28  .  .  . 

0  13  A.M. 

19. 

Oct. 

3  .  .  . 

7  35  A.M. 

20. 

- . 

10  .  .  . 

9  2  A.M. 

21. 

— 

13  .  .  . 

9  56  P.M. 

22. 

. - 

26  .  .  . 

9  42  P.M. 

Star  in  Relative 

Conjunction.  Position. 


cr  Aquari  .  .  . 

* 

0( 

T5'N 

Uranus  .  .  . 

Ura. 

0 

4 

N 

£  Piscium  .  . 

0 

3 

N 

£  Arietis  .  .  . 

* 

0 

8 

N 

e  Pleiadum  . 

# 

0 

51 

S 

The  Moon  .  . 

Ven. 

0 

59 

N 

S1  Tauri  .  .  . 

# 

0 

11 

S 

S2  Tauri  .  .  . 

# 

0 

20 

S 

S3  Tauri  .  .  . 

* 

0 

6 

N 

m  Tauri  .  .  . 

# 

0 

46 

S 

£  Tauri  .  .  . 

# 

0 

57 

N 

X\  Orionis  .  . 

* 

0 

14 

S 

Orionis  .  . 

* 

0 

30 

s 

v  Geminorum 

0 

35 

s 

£  Geminorum 

0 

4 

s 

5  Cancri  .  .  . 

0 

38 

N 

The  Moon  .  . 

Ven. 

0 

21 

a  Leonis  .  .  . 

0 

5 

s 

§  Leonis  .  .  . 

* 

0 

43 

s 

X  Leonis  .  .  . 

# 

0 

15 

N 

a  Leonis  .  .  . 

* 

0 

29 

N 

97  Virginis  .  . 

# 

0 

14 

S 

In  the  above  table,  the  first  column  states  the  time  of  con¬ 
junction  of  the  star  or  planet  with  Venus  ;  the  second  column 
contains  the  same  star  or  planet ;  and  the  third,  the  distance 
and  position  of  the  star  or  planet  from  Venus.  N.  denotes 
that  the  star  is  north  of  Venus ;  and  S.,  that  it  is  south.  A.M. 
denotes  before  twelve  at  noon  ;  and  P.M.,  afternoon.  In  those 
conjunctions  marked  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  4,  8,  9,  12,  15,  17,  18,  20, 
22,  the  star  and  the  planet  will  be  seen  in  the  same  field  of 
view  of  the  telescope ;  and  although  the  observation  should 
require  to  be  made  in  the  daytime,  the  star  may  probably  be 
distinguished  if  the  telescope  have  a  great  magnifying  power 
The  conjunction  of  Venus  with  Uranus  on  the  25th  of  Janu¬ 
ary,  at  twenty-five  minutes  past  one  in  the  morning,  will  afford 
an  opportunity  to  amateur  observers  of  observing  this  latter 


THE  PLANET  MARS. 


371 


planet,  which  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye.  Although  both 
these  bodies  will  be  set  to  the  inhabitants  of  Britain  be¬ 
fore  the  conjunction  take  place,  yet  they  will  be  both  seen 
in  the  same  field  of  the  telescope  between  six  and  eight 
o’clock  on  the  preceding  evening,  and  they  will  not  be  far 
distant  on  the  evening  immediately  succeeding  the  conjunc¬ 
tion.  At  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  other  parts 
of  the  United  States,  these  planets  will  be  seen  about  an  hour 
or  an  hour  and  a  half  before  the  time  of  conjunction,  Uranus 
appearing  very  near  to  Venus,  and  uppermost,  when  viewed 
with  a  telescope  having  an  erect  eye-piece. 

N.B.  All  the  above  and  the  preceding  and  following  state¬ 
ments  are  calculated  for  the  meridian  of  Greenwich,  and  are 
expressed,  not  in  astronomical ,  but  in  civil  time. 


3.  Mars . 

During  this  year  this  planet  will  make  a  conspicuous  ap¬ 
pearance,  and  be  seen  in  its  brightest  lustre  ;  but  its  declina¬ 
tion  being  south  throughout  the  year,  it  will  not  rise  to  so 
high  an  altitude,  nor  remain  so  long  above  the  horizon,  as  in 
some  former  years.  During  the  months  of  January,  February, 
and  March,  it  will  be  seen  only  or  chiefly  in  the  morning,  in 
a  south-easterly  direction.  In  the  beginning  of  January,  it  will 
appear  nearly  in  a  direction  east  by  south,  soon  after  the  time 
of  its  rising.  On  February  the  1st,  it  comes  to  the  meridian 
about  five  in  the  morning,  at  an  altitude  of  about  29°  ;  and  on 
March  the  first,  at  thirty-seven  minutes  past  three  in  the 
morning,  at  an  altitude  of  27°.  About  the  middle  of  March, 
it  will  rise  about  half-past  nine  in  the  evening,  and  may  be 
seen  about  an  hour  or  two  afterwards  near  the  south-west 
quarter  of  the  heavens.  From  this  period,  it  will  be  seen  in 
the  evening,  till  the  end  of  the  year ;  but  as  its  distance  from 
the  earth  will  rapidly  increase  after  the  months  of  August  and 
September,  and  as  it  is  then  in  a  high  degree  of  south  decli¬ 
nation,  it  will  not  be  much  noticed  by  common  observers 
during  October,  November,  and  December.  On  the  18th  of 
April,  about  two  in  the  morning,  it  arrives  at  the  point  of  its 
opposition  to  the  sun,  when  it  is  nearest  the  earth,  when  it 
appears  with  a  full  enlightened  hemisphere,  and  when  it 
affords  the  best  opportunities  for  telescopic  observation.  It 
will  be  most  conspicuous  this  year  in  the  evening,  during 
March,  April,  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  and  will  be  dis¬ 
tinguished  from  surrounding  stars  by  its  ruddy  appearance, 


372  VESTA,  JUNO,  CERES,  AND  PALLAS. 

During  the  months  of  July,  August,  and  September,  it  will  ba 
seen  chiefly  near  the  south-western  portion  of  the  sky.  On 
the  11th  of  March,  it  is  stationary ;  that  is,  appears  without 
any  apparent  motion  ;  after  which,  its  motion  is  retrograde ,  or 
contrary  to  the  order  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac,  and  so  con¬ 
tinues  till  the  29th  of  May,  when  it  is  again  stationary ;  after 
which  its  motion  is  direct ,  or  according  to  the  order  of  the 
signs. 

The  planet  Mars  will  be  in  conjunction  with  6  Virginis  on 
the  1st  of  January,  at  thirty-two  minutes  past  four  p.  m.,  when 
the  star  will  be  17'  south  of  the  planet.  It  will  be  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  *  Virginis  on  the  4th  of  April,  at  eight  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  when  the  star  will  be  49'  north  of  Mars.  It  will  be  in 
conjunction  with  a2  Librae  on  the  10th  of  August,  at  nineteen 
minutes  past  two  p.  m.,  the  star  1°  58'  north.  On  the  16th 
of  September,  at  fifty-three  minutes  past  three  in  the  morning, 
the  star  g  Ophiuchi  will  be  in  conjunction,  at  the  distance  of 
only  V  to  the  south ;  so  that  the  two  bodies  will  seem  almost 
to  touch  each  other.  On  the  27th  of  September,  about  six 
o’clock  in  the  evening,  this  planet  will  be  in  conjunction  with 
Jupiter,  when  Mars  will  appear  2°  4'  to  the  south  of  Jupiter. 
On  the  4th  of  October,  at  thirty-five  minutes  past  ten  p.  m.,  it 
will  be  in  conjunction  with  9  Ophiuchi,  when  the  star  will 
appear  only  6'  south  of  the  planet.  On  December  18th,  it  will 
be  in  conjunction  with  t  Capricorni,  at  8h  47'  p.  m.,  when  the 
star  will  be  only  eight  minutes  of  a  degree  south  of  Mars. 

4.  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas. 

These  planets  will  all  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun  this  year. 
Vesta  will  be  in  opposition  on  the  22d  of  October,  at  twenty- 
one  minutes  past  three  in  the  morning.  It  will  transit  the 
meridian  about  midnight,  at  an  altitude  of  3S°  20b  Right 
ascension,  2h  2'  27" ;  north  declination,  20'  23".  On  the  20th 
of  April,  at  lh  25'  p.  m.,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  the  star  p 
Piscium,  the  star  1°  34'  north  of  the  planet.  On  the  22d  of 
April,  at  10h  56'  a.m.,  it  is  in  conjunction  with  r  Piscium,  the 
star  1°  IP  south  of  Vesta.  On  the  24th  of  August,  at  lh  44' 
a.m.,  the  star  v  Ceti  will  be  in  conjunction,  the  star  14'  north 
of  Vesta;  both  these  bodies  will  therefore  be  seen  in  the  same 
field  of  a  telescope. 

Juno  will  be  in  opposition  on  the  19th  of  March  at  2h  4 5' 
p.  m.,  and  will  come  to  the  meridian  about  midnight,  at  an 
altitude  of  41°  3b  Right  ascension,  llh  59'  55 north  de¬ 
clination  3°  3'  15".  Juno  will  be  in  conjunction  with  rj  Vir- 


JUPITER. 


373 


ginis  on  the  4th  of  March,  at  3h  24'  p.  m.,  the  star  28'  south 
of  Juno.  On  the  25th  of  April,  at  noon,  it  will  be  in  conjunc¬ 
tion  with  v  Virginis,  when  the  star  will  be  only  7'  north  of 
the  planet.  This  conjunction  will  afford  a  favourable  oppor¬ 
tunity  for  detecting  Juno.  On  the  24th  of  May,  at  7h  12'  a.m., 
it  will  again  be  in  conjunction  with  v  Virginis,  when  the  star 
will  be  36'  south  of  the  planet.  On  the  22d  of  June,  at  8h  36' 
A.  m.,  it  will  be  in  conjunction  with  n  Virginis,  the  star  45' 
north  of  the  planet. 

Pallas  is  in  opposition  to  the  sun  on  the  4th  of  September, 
at  5h  34'  p.  m.,  when  it  will  come  to  the  meridian  at  an  alti¬ 
tude  of  40°  4 1 1'.  Right  ascension,  22h  37' ;  north  declination, 
2°  41'  20".  Pallas  will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  star  tj 
Aquarii  on  the  20th  of  September,  about  one  in  the  morning, 
when  the  star  will  be  22'  south  of  Pallas. 

Ceres  is  in  opposition  on  October  13th,  at  twenty-two 
minutes  past  eleven  a.  m.,  and  comes  to  the  meridian  at  that 
time  at  an  elevation  above  the  southern  horizon  of  32°  45^. 
Right  ascension,  lh  35'  20";  north  declination,  5°  14'  30". 

5.  Jupiter. 

This  planet  passed  its  conjunction  with  the  sun  on  the  21st 
of  November,  1840,  and  will  appear  as  a  morning  star  during 
the  months  of  January,  F ebruary,  March,  and  April.  On  the 
1st  of  January,  it  will  rise  near  the  south,  at  thirty-four 
minutes  past  five  in  the  morning,  and  will  pass  the  meridian 
at  forty  minutes  past  nine,  at  an  altitude  of  nearly  17°.  On 
the  1st  of  February,  it  will  rise  in  the  same  quarter,  at  fifty-six 
minutes  past  three,  and  come  to  the  meridian  about  eight.  On 
the  1st  of  March,  it  will  rise  at  twenty-two  minutes  past  two 
in  the  morning,  and  pass  the  meridian  at  twenty-eight  minutes 
past  six.  On  the  1st  of  April,  it  rises  at  twenty-eight  minutes 
past  twelve,  midnight ;  and  on  the  1st  of  May,  at  thirty-two 
minutes  past  ten  in  the  evening ;  after  which  it  will  continue 
to  be  seen  in  the  evening  till  about  the  middle  of  November. 
It  will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  on  the  morning  of  the 
23d  of  December,  after  which,  it  will  be  a  morning  star.  The 
declination  of  Jupiter  on  January  1st  is  21°  3p  south ,  and  on 
the  1st  of  December,  23°  13J'  south.  On  account,  therefore, 
of  its  great  southern  declination,  its  altitude  will  be  low,  and 
its  duration  above  the  horizon  comparatively  short.  Its  alti¬ 
tude,  when  passing  the  meridian  about  the  beginning  of  De¬ 
cember,  is  only  14°  46'.  Its  opposition  to  the  sun  happens  on 
the  5th  of  June,  at  10h  16'  p.  m.  It  will  appear  chiefly  in  a 
Vol.  VIII.  32 


374 


SATURN. 


southerly  and  south-westerly  direction  in  the  evenings  of  July, 
August  and  September.  The  best  time  for  telescopic  observa¬ 
tions  on  this  planet  in  the  evening  will  be  from  April  till  the 
end  of  August. 

On  the  20th  of  April,  at  a  quarter  past  three  in  the  morn¬ 
ing,  all  the  satellites  of  Jupiter  will  appear  on  the  west  side 
of  the  planet,  when  viewed  with  a  telescope  having  an  erect 
eye-piece,  and  in  the  order  of  their  distances  from  Jupiter. 
The  same  phenomenon  will  happen  on  the  8th  of  June,  at 
thirty  minutes  past  eleven  in  the  evening.  On  the  5th  and 
ISth  of  July,  (on  the  east  of  Jupiter,)  at  forty-five  minutes 
past  nine  in  the  evening ;  on  the  27th  of  September,  at  7h  3CK 

m.  ;  and  on  the  17th  of  November,  at  5h  p.  m. 


6.  Saturn . 

This  planet  will  be  seen  only  in  the  morning  from  the  be¬ 
ginning  of  January  till  the  beginning  of  May.  On  the  1st  of 
February,  it  will  rise  at  5h  8'  a.  m.,  in  a  direction  nearly  south¬ 
east,  and  will  come  to  the  meridian  at  9h  &  a.  m.,  at  an  altitude 
of  15°  35';  on  the  1st  of  March,  it  rises  at  twenty-eight 
minutes  past  three  in  the  morning ;  on  the  1st  of  April,  at 
thirty-one  minutes  past  one ;  and  on  the  1st  of  May,  at  thirty- 
two  minutes  past  eleven  in  the  evening.  From  January  till 
May  the  planet  will  be  seen  chiefly  in  a  south-easterly  direc¬ 
tion  in  the  morning,  at  a  small  elevation  above  the  horizon. 
From  July  till  October  it  will  be  seen  in  the  evening,  chiefly 
in  a  southerly  and  south-by-west  direction.  It  is  in  opposi 
tion  to  the  sun  on  the  21st  of  June,  when  it  rises  about  eight 
in  the  evening,  and  passes  the  meridian  about  midnight.  It 
will  be  in  conjunction  with  the  sun  on  the  27th  of  December. 
Its  right  ascension  on  the  1st  of  January  is  17h  43',  and  its 
south  declination,  22°  2V.  On  the  31st  of  December,  its 
right  ascension  is  18h  26',  and  south  declination,  22°  40;.  On 
account  of  its  great  southern  declination  and  its  vicinity  to  the 
sun,  it  will  not  be  much  noticed  during  the  latter  part  of  Octo¬ 
ber  and  the  months  of  November  and  December. 

During  this  year  the  ring  of  Saturn  will  be  in  a  very  favour¬ 
able  position  for  telescopic  observation,  the  elliptical  figure 
of  the  ring  appearing  nearly  at  its  utmost  width,  so  that  it  will 
appear  very  nearly  to  encompass  the  planet.  The  best  periods 
for  telescopic  observations  in  the  evening  will  be  from  the 
month  of  May  till  the  end  of  September. 


URANUS. 


37  5 


7.  Uranus . 

Uranus  will  be  in  opposition  to  the  sun  on  the  15th  of 
September,  at  10h  17'  a.  m.,  when  it  will  pass  the  meridian 
about  midnight,  at  an  altitude  of  34°  15'.  Right  ascension  at 
this  period,  23h  33 J' ;  south  declination,  3°  45'.  It  is  in  con¬ 
junction  with  Venus  on  the  25th  of  January,  at  twenty-five 
minutes  past  one  in  the  morning,  and  is  distant  from  Venus 
only  four  minutes  of  a  degree.  It  is  in  conjunction  with  Vesta 
on  the  9th  of  April,  at  nine  in  the  evening,  being  3°  54'  to  the 
north  of  Vesta.  On  the  1st  of  September,  it  passes  the  meri¬ 
dian  at  fifty-one  minutes  past  twelve,  midnight;  on  the  1st  of 
October,  at  forty-nine  minutes  past  ten  in  the  evening  ;  on  the 
1st  of  November,  at  forty-three  minutes  past  eight ;  on  the  1st 
of  December,  at  forty-four  minutes  past  six ;  and  on  the  1st 
of  January,  1842,  at  forty-four  minutes  past  four  in  the  after¬ 
noon.  The  most  eligible  periods  for  detecting  this  planet  by 
means  of  the  telescope  are  the  months  of  August,  September, 
October,  and  November. 

N.  B.  The  preceding  descriptions  of  planetary  phenomena 
are  chiefly  intended  to  inform  common  observers  as  to  the 
seasons  of  the  year  when  the  different  planets  may  be  seen, 
and  the  quarters  of  the  heavens  to  which  they  are  to  di¬ 
rect  their  attention  in  order  to  distinguish  them.  It  may  be 
proper  to  observe,  that  the  planets  in  general  cannot  be  dis¬ 
tinguished  by  the  naked  eye  for  about  a  month  before  and 
after  their  conjunctions  with  the  sun,  except  Venus ,  which 
may  frequently  be  seen  within  a  week  before  and  after  its  in- 
ferior  conjunction ;  but  this  planet  will  sometimes  be  invisi¬ 
ble  to  the  naked  eye  for  a  month  or  two  before  and  after  its 
superior  conjunction  with  the  sun. 

For  a  particular  description  of  the  motions,  distances,  mag¬ 
nitudes,  and  other  phenomena  in  relation  to  the  primary  pla¬ 
nets  and  their  satellites,  the  reader  is  respectfully  referred  to 
the  volume  entitled  “Celestial  Scenery;  or  the  Wonders 
of  the  Planetary  System  displayed,”  where  all  the  most  inte¬ 
resting  facts  connected  with  the  solar  system,  and  the  scenery 
*t  displays,  are  particularly  detailed. 


376 


ECLIPSES  IN  1840. 


ECLIPSES  AND  OCCULTATIONS. 

ECLIPSES  IN  1840. 

There  will  be  four  eclipses  this  year,  two  of  the  sun  and 
two  of  the  moon  ;  but  none  of  them  will  be  visible  within  the 
limits  of  the  British  isles,  nor  in  the  United  States  of  America, 
except  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  moon,  August  13th,  at  7h  23' 
a.m.,  Greenwich  time.  This  eclipse  will  be  visible  at  Phila¬ 
delphia,  New  York,  Boston,  and  most  parts  of  North  America, 
but  not  in  Britain.  On  march  4th,  there  will  be  an  annular 
eclipse  of  the  sun,  the  middle  of  which  will  happen  at  7h  23f 
a.m.  ;  and  on  August  27th  there  will  be  a  total  eclipse  of  the 
sun ;  middle  of  the  eclipse  about  7h  a.m.  These  two  interest¬ 
ing  eclipses  will  be  visible  chiefly  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
globe,  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Africa,  the  East  Indies,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  Australia,  &c.  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  there  will 
be  a  'partial  eclipse  of  the  sun  on  August  27th ;  but  both 
eclipses  will  be  invisible  both  in  Britain  and  America. 


eclipses  in  1841. 

This  year  there  will  be  six  eclipses,  four  of  the  sun  and 
two  of  the  moora,  at  the  following  times  : — Of  the  sun ,  January 
22d,  at  5h  23',  a  partial  eclipse,  visible  only  in  a  small  portion 
of  the  southern  ocean;  of  the  moon ,  February  6th,  at  2h  6' 
a.m.,  visible  in  Great  Britain ;  of  the  sun ,  a  partial  eclipse, 
February  21st,  at  llh  4'  a.  m.,  visible  chiefly  in  the  North 
Atlantic  Ocean,  Iceland,  and  East  Greenland ;  of  the  swn,  a 
partial  eclipse,  July  18,  at  2h  24'  p.m.,  visible  in  Baffin’s  Bay, 
Iceland,  Norway,  Sweden,  Russia  in  Europe,  Prussia,  Germany, 
Scotland,  &c.,  but  invisible  at  Greenwich  ;  of  the  moow,  a  total 
eclipse,  August  2d,  at  10h  V  a.m.  ;  of  t?he  sim,  a  partial  eclipse, 
August  16th,  at  9h  19'  p.m.,  visible  chiefly  in  the  South  Pacific 
Ocean.  The  times  here  specified  denote  the  middle  of  the 
eclipse. 

All  the  above  eclipses  are  invisible  at  Greenwich,  and  in 
most  parts  of  Britain,  except  the  total  eclipse  of  the  moon  on 
February  5th  and  6th,  of  which  the  following  is  a  more  par¬ 
ticular  detail  in  mean  time  at  Greenwich • 


ECLIPSES  IN  1841. 


377 


First  contact  with  penumbra  of  the  earth’s  shadow,  ? 

February  5th . . .3 

First  contact  with  dark  shadow,  February  6th  .  . 

First  total  immersion  in  dark  shadow,  ditto  .  .  . 

Middle  of  the  eclipse,  ditto  .... 

Last  total  immersion  in  dark  shadow,  ditto  .  .  . 

Last  contact  with  dark  shadow,  ditto  .... 

Last  contact  with  penumbra,  ditto  .  .  . 

Digits  eclipsed,  20^ 

A  large  solar  eclipse  will  be  visible  on  July  8,  1842 ;  and 
no  eclipse  of  the  sun  will  be  visible  in  Britain  till  that  time. 
That  eclipse  will  be  total  in  the  southern  parts  of  France,  and 
large  ever*  in  and  near  London.  At  Greenwich,  it  will  begin 
at  4h  53|'  a.m.,  and  end  at  6h  43;.  Digits  eclipsed,  9°  42J;. 
Of  course  this  eclipse  will  not  be  visible  in  the  United  States, 
nor  throughout  any  part  of  America,  as  the  sun  will  not  at 
that  time  be  risen  to  those  places. 

OCCULTATIONS  OF  VENUS  BY  THE  MOON  IN  1841. 

On  the  26th  of  March,  1841,  the  planet  Venus  will  suffer 
an  occultation  by  the  moon.  It  will  begin  to  be  immersed 
behind  the  moon  at  forty  minutes  past  two  o’clock  in  the 
afternoon,  of  Greenwich  mean  time,  and  will  emerge  from  be¬ 
hind  the  opposite  limb  of  the  moon  at  twenty-three  minutes 
past  3  p.m.  Another  occultation  of  Venus  will  happen  on  the 
12th  of  September,  1841 ;  immersion,  thirty  minutes  past  six 
in  the  morning;  emersion,  forty-two  minutes  past  7  a.m.  In 
the  occultation  of  March  26,  Venus  will  be  nearly  in  the  form 
of  a  half-moon,  and  the  moon  in  the  form  of  a  crescent. 
Venus  will  be  immerged  at  the  dark  (or  eastern)  limb  of  the 
moon,  and  will  emerge  from  the  enlightened  crescent.  They 
will  be  then  nearly  on  the  meridian,  at  an  altitude  of  about  60°, 
and  nearly  three  hours  of  right  ascension  east  of  the  sun. 
short  time  after  sunset,  Venus  will  be  seen  a  little  west  from 
the  lunar  crescent,  but  very  near  it,  shining  with  considerable 
splendour.  Although  this  occultation  will  happen  while  the 
sun  is  above  the  horizon,  yet  both  the  moon  and  Venus  will 
be  easily  perceived  with  a  common  telescope  of  very  moderate 
magnifying  power.  In  the  occultation  which  takes  place  on 
the  morning  of  September  12,  Venus  will,  as  in  the  former 
case,  be  nearly  in  the  shape  of  a  half-moon,  and  the  moon  a 
slender  crescent,  being  only  2j  days  from  the  period  of  con¬ 
junction  or  new  moon.  In  this  case  Venus  will  be  immerged 
at  the  enlightened  limb  of  the  moon,  and  emerge  from  the 
dark  limb.  Both  bodies  will  be  then  in  an  easterly  or  north- 

32* 


h.  m. 

11  24  p.m. 

0  20  A.M. 

1  17  AM. 

2  63  A.M. 

2  55j  a.m. 

3  52$  a.m, 

4  49  a.m. 


378 


EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  PLATES. 


easterly  direction,  and  the  immersion  will  take  place  a  little 
after  sunrise  ;  about  half  an  hour  before  which,  V enus  will  be 
seen  a  very  little  to  the  east  of  the  moon. 


EXPLANATIONS  OF  SOME  OF  THE  ENGRAVINGS  OF 

THE  STARS. 

Plates  I.  and  II.,  which  represent  portions  of  the  heavens 
as  seen  about  the  middle  of  January  and  the  1st  of  September, 
have  been  explained  pp.  20 — 23 ;  and  Plate  III.,  which  re¬ 
presents  the  north  circumpolar  stars,  has  been  explained  pp. 
23—28. 

Plate  IV.  represents  some  of  the  larger  stars  and  principal 
constellations  around  the  South  Pole ,  to  the  distance  of  45° 
from  that  pole.  It  also  shews  a  portion  of  the  Milky  Way 
which  traverses  that  region  of  the  heavens,  and  which  is  said 
to  appear  there  with  peculiar  brilliancy.  One  of  the  principal 
constellations  which  is  frequently  noticed,  and  which  appears 
peculiarly  striking  to  sea-faring  people  and  others,  is  called 
Crux,  or  the  Cross ,  from  the  resemblance  it  bears  to  that 
figure.  It  consists  of  five  stars,  one  of  the  first  magnitude, 
two  of  the  second,  one  of  the  third,  and  one  of  the  fourth 
magnitude.  F our  of  these  are  in  the  position  of  the  cross ; 
the  northernmost  and  southernmost  of  which  are  always  in 
a  line  with  the  South  Pole,  and  therefore  serve  for  a  direction 
in  south  latitude  to  discover  that  pole,  as  the  Two  Pointers  in 
the  Great  Bear  serve  to  direct  the  eye  to  the  North  Polar-star. 
There  is  no  large  or  prominent  star  at  or  near  the  South  Pole. 
This  constellation  is  represented  near  the  line,  or  meridian, 
which  points  at  XII.,  opposite  to  the  month  of  May.  All  its 
stars,  except  the  lowermost,  appear  within  the  limits  of  the 
Milky  Way.  The  stars  immediately  below  the  Cross  belong 
to  the  Centaur ;  those  on  the  left,  opposite  April ,  belong  to 
Robur  Caroli ,  or  King  Charles’s  Oak,  which  contains  a  star 
of  the  first  magnitude.  Further  to  the  left,  opposite  March , 
is  Argo  Navis  or  the  Ship.  Still  further  to  the  left,  opposite 
February ,  is  Pisces  Volans ,  the  Flying  Fish,  which  contains 
a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  named  Canopus.  This  star  is 
marked  near  the  left  side  of  the  map,  opposite  the  middle  of 
February.  To  the  right  from  the  Cross  are  the  two  fore-legs 
of  the  Centaur,  distinguished  by  two  stars  of  the  first  magni¬ 
tude,  named  Agena  and  Bungula ,  Agena  being  the  one  next 
to  the  Cross.  They  are  in  the  Milky  Way,  and  appear  oppo 


PLA 


THE  SOUTH  CIR 


i'G  IV. 


EXPLANATIONS  OP  THE  PLATES. 


379 


site  the  month  of  June.  Next  to  the  Cross  and  the  Centaur 
on  the  right,  are  Circinus ,  or  the  Compasses ;  the  Southern 
Triangle ,  which  contains  three  stars  of  the  second  magnitude 
in  the  form  of  a  triangle ;  and  Ara ,  or  the  Altar,  which  lies 
adjacent  to  the  right-hand  side  of  the  map,  opposite  the  space 
between  July  and  August . 

Directing  our  attention  to  the  upper  part  of  the  map,  on  the 
left,  there  is  the  constellation  Equuleus  Pictoria ,  or  the 
Painter’s  Easel,  which  consists  of  a  number  of  small  stars. 
Next  to  this,  and  a  little  above  it,  is  Dorado ,  or  the  Sword 
Fish,  which  contains  two  or  three  stars  of  the  second  and 
third  magnitudes.  To  the  right  of  Dorado  is  Hydros ,  or  the 
Water  Snake ;  above  which  is  Achernar ,  a  star  of  the  first 
magnitude  in  Eridanus ,  which  appears  opposite  the  1st  of 
December.  Next  to  Achernar,  on  the  right  is  Toucana ,  or 
the  American  Goose  ;  above  which,  opposite  November,  is  the 
Phoenix ;  to  the  right  of  which  is  the  Crane ,  which  contains 
two  stars  of  the  second  magnitude ;  below  which  is  Pavo ,  or 
the  Peacock,  which  contains  several  stars  of  the  second  and 
third  magnitudes ;  below  Pavo,  opposite  to  August,  is  Tele - 
scopium ,  or  the  Telescope,  which  contains  no  remarkable 
stars.  Within  eleven  degrees  of  the  South  Pole,  represented 
by  the  central  point  of  the  map,  are  two  of  those  whitish  or 
nebulous  spaces  called  the  Magellanic  Clouds ,  which  are 
found  by  the  telescope  to  consist  of  small  stars  and  nebulous 
appearances.  The  other  Magellanic  cloud,  which  is  the 
largest,  is  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  South  Pole.  In 
specifying  the  names  of  some  of  the  above-stated  constella¬ 
tions,  the  incongruity  of  the  animals  and  figures  by  which 
these  groups  of  stars  are  represented  will  at  once  be  apparent 
to  the  reader. 

Plate  V.  contains  a  condensed  representation  of  some  of 
the  principal  constellations  in  the  northern  and  southern 
hemispheres  on  Mercator1  s  Projection ,  chiefly  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  the  course  of  the  Milky  Way,  and  the 
relative  positions  of  the  constellations.  Some  of  the  larger 
stars  may  be  here  traced  as  a  Lyrae,  Capella,  &c.,  but  they  are 
more  easily  distinguished  in  the  other  maps.  (See  the  descrip¬ 
tion  given  of  the  course  of  the  Milky  Way,  pp.  134,  135.) 

Fig.  80  (p.  311)  represents  the  comet  of  1661,  as  seen  by 
Hevelius ;  the  atmosphere,  or  nebulosity,  surrounding  the 
nucleus,  when  viewed  at  different  times,  varied  in  its  extent, 
as  likewise  the  tail  in  its  length  and  breadth. 

Fig.  81  (p.  311)  represents  a  class  of  comets  which  have 
their  tails  somewhat  bent,  which  some  suppose  to  be  owing 


the  principal  stars  composing 

THE  PLEIADES 


380  EXPLANATIONS  OP  THE  PLATES. 

to  the  resistance  of  the  ethereal  fluid  through  which  they 
move. 

Fig.  85  represents  a  telescopic  view  of  the  Pleiades ,  a 
group  of  stars  in  the  constellation  Taurus.  About  forty  stars 
are  here  represented,  but  with  powerful  telescopes  many  more 
may  be  discovered.  Rheita  affirms  that  he  counted  200  stars 
within  this  cluster,  and  yet  telescopes,  at  the  period  when  he 

Fig.  85. 


EXPLANATIONS  OF  THE  PLATES.  381 


lived,  had  not  arrived  at  the  point  of  perfection  they  have 
now  attained.  The  principal  star  in  the  Pleiades  is  Alcione , 
of  the  third  magnitude,  which  is  here  represented  near  the  centre 
of  the  cluster.  The  names  of  the  others  visible  to  the  naked 


Fig.  86. 


382  EXPLANATIONS  OP  THE  PLATES. 

eye  are  Merope,  Maia,  Electra,  Tayeta,  Sterope,  and  Celino. 
Merope  is  the  one  which  some  suppose  to  have  been  lost.  In 
fabulous  history,  these  stars  were  the  seven  daughters  of 
Atlas  and  the  nymph  Pleione,  who  were  turned  into  stars  with 
their  sisters  the  Hyades,  on  account  of  their  mutual  affection 
and  amiable  virtues. 

The  other  five  stars,  besides  Alcione,  are  of  the  fifth  mag¬ 
nitude,  as  represented  in  the  plate ;  and  the  rest  are  telescopic 
stars  of  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  magnitudes.  The 
lines  from  right  to  left  are  portions  of  circles  of  declination, 
which  run  parallel  with  the  equinoctial,  as  the  parallels  of 
latitude  on  the  terrestrial  globe  do  with  respect  to  the  equator ; 
and  on  these  the  declination ,  or  distance  of  the  body  from  the 
equinoctial,  is  marked.  The  other  lines,  from  top  to  bottom, 
are  portions  of  circles  of  right  ascension  corresponding  with 
meridians  on  the  terrestrial  globe.  On  these  are  marked  the 
right  ascensions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  or  their  distance, 
reckoned  on  the  equinoctial  from  the  first  point  of  Aries. 
One  of  these  lines,  at  the  top  and  bottom,  is  marked  54°, 
shewing  that  the  stars  in  that  line  are  54°  east  from  the  first 
point  of  Aries  ;  and  the  number  23,  marked  at  the  right  and 
left-hand  sides,  shews  that  the  star  or  stars  in  that  line  are  23° 
north  of  the  equinoctial. 

Fig.  86  represents  the  tail  of  the  splendid  comet  of  1744, 
which  was  divided  into  six  branches,  as  described  p.  318 
See  also  the  description  given  of  this  comet,  pp.  304,  305. 


INDEX. 


Aberration  of  the  stars  - . 

Explanation  of  this  Phenomenon,  illustrated  by  a  figure 
Sir  J.  Herschel’s  illustration  of  the  - 
Various  illustrations  of  the  - 
Conclusions  deduced  from  this  phenomenon 
Algol,  a  variable  star,  description  of  its  phenomena,  periot 
Alphabet,  the  Greek  - 
America,  North,  whether  its  climate  has  been  changed  b 

of  a  comet . 

Andromeda,  nebulae  in,  described  - 
Annihilation,  no  proof  that  such  an  event  ever  happens 

Antinoi,  variable  star  in  . 

Aquila,  its  principal  stars  described  - 
Arago,  his  opinion  respecting  the  November  meteors 
His  calculations  respecting  the  comet  of  1832  - 

On  the  comet  of  1835 
On  the  light  of  comets 
On  the  number  of  comets 
Aspect  of  the  heavens  in  January 
In  March 
In  May 
In  July 

In  September  - 
In  November  - 


Bayer’s  catalogue  of  the  stars  .... 
Bearings  of  the  stars  from  each  other,  how  to  be  understood 
Beccaria,  his  opinion  as  to  the  cause  of  shooting  stars 
Beings  in  the  universe,  immense  number  of  - 
Bessel’s  determination  of  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni  - 
Binary  systems  (see  Double  stars  and  Systems ) 

Bradley’s  observations  for  discovering  the  annual  parallax 
On  the  relative  position  of  the  double  star  Castor 
Discovery  of  the  aberration  of  light 
British  Association,  its  proposal  for  a  new  arrangement 

stellations . 

Burrett,  Mr.,  his  notice  respecting  shooting  stars 


rAoa 

57,  196,  201 
196—198 

-  199 

-  200 
199—201 

&c. "  -  90 

-  39,  40 

the  action 

-  328 
167,  168 
83,  84 
91 
22 


f  th 


229 
308 
314 
320 
338 
347—351 

352 

353 
254 

355 

356 

36 
169 
218 
290 
61— 64 
100—123 
56—58 

-  104 
58,  197 

con- 

-  48 

-  223 


Cancer,  its  relation  and  position  -  -  -  -  -  •  -19 

Canis  Major  and  Canis  Minor . 20 

Cassiopeia . 25 

New  star  discovered  in  its  phenomena,  &c.  76,  77 

Castor,  motion  and  period  of  its  attendant  discovered  by  Herschel 

101—105 

Angular  motion  of  the  small  star,  from  1779  to  1830  104 — 106 

Catalogue  of  the  larger  nebulae . 189 — 195 

Catalogues  of  the  stars . 35 


383 


384 


INDEX. 


Central  body  of  the  universe  ... 

Changes  in  the  starry  regions 

Reflections  and  remarks  suggested  by 
Christian  revelation  .... 

Clusters  of  stars . 

Globular,  immense  number  of  stars  they  contain 
Immense  distance  of  .... 
Views  and  positions  of  certain  clusters 

Colures  described  . 

Equinoctial  colure  - 
Coma  Berenices,  description  of 
Comets,  general  description  of 

Aristotle’s  opinion  respecting  ... 
History  and  description  of  remarkable  comets 


Comet  of  1680,  description  of  its  appearance — Whiston’s  opinion 


respecting  .... 

Of  1682  and  1744,  their  phenomena  - 
Of  1770,  its  mysterious  nature 
Encke’s  and  Gambart’s,  particular  description  of 
Alarms  occasioned  by  in  France  ... 

Comet  of  1807,  the  author’s  observations  on  the 
Schroeter’s  observations  and  deductions  respecting 
Herschel  and  Schroeter’s  description  of  its  nucleus, 
cations,  &c.  ...... 

Re-appearance  of  Halley’s  comet  in  1835,  description 
Luminous  sectors  seen  in,  by  Arago 
Mrs.  Somerville’s  remarks  respecting 
Physical  constitution  of 

Opinions  respecting  their  light,  nuclei,  tails,  &c. 
Whether  they  shine  with  native  light 
Increase  of  the  nebulosities  of  - 
Whether  they  may  come  in  contact  with  the  earth 
Their  supposed  influence  on  the  earth 
Inconclusive  reasonings  as  to  their  influence 

Their  inhabitability . 

Diversified  prospects  from  .... 
Immense  excursions  of 
On  the  orbits  and  motions  of  - 
Their  supposed  number  - 
Their  rapid  motions  ..... 

Their  perihelions,  inclination  of  orbits,  &c. 

Size  and  splendour  of  certain  comets 
Display  the  wisdom,  power,  and  goodness  of  the  Deity 
Constellations,  their  origin  - 

Principles  on  which  they  were  formed 
List  of  ancient  and  modern,  with  the  number  of  stars 
Strictures  on  the  ancient  arrangement  of  the 


Proposed  improvement  in  their  delineation,  arrangement,  and 

nomenclature  --------  45 — 48 

Positions  of  the,  in  every  alternate  month  of  the  year  347 — 357 

Corona  Borealis . 22 

Correspondence  with  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds  -  273 — 275 

Coruscations  of  comets . 310,  312 

Creation,  work  of,  not  finished  when  our  globe  was  arranged  -  -  98 

Immensity  of  -------  285,  286 

Creations  still  going  forward  throughout  immensity  -  -  98,  99 

61  Cvgni,  its  parallax  and  distance . 61—64 

Its  proper  motion,  velocity,  &c.  ....  62,  204,  289 

Its  situation  in  the  heavens  -  --  --  --69 


PAGE 
-  216 
96—98 
98—100 
280,  298 

153 

154 

155 

156 
55 

357 
149 

299 

300 
-316 


301- 


301—303 
303,  304 

-  305 
306,  307 

-  308 
308,  309 

-  310 
ail,  corns - 

-  312,  313 
of  the  -  314 

-  315 

-  316 

-  317 

-  318,  319 

-  319 

-  320 

-  321 
323—328 

-  329 
330—331 

-  332 

-  333,334 
334—337 
338—340 

-  341 

-  341 

-  342 
343—345 

-  28 
28,  32 

in  each  32 — 34 
40—45 


INDEX. 


385 


PAGE 

Declination  of  a  heavenly  body  ------  54 

Deity,  scriptural  representations  of  his  immensity  and  grandeur  65 

Boundless  extent  of  his  operations  -  -  65,  113,  284,  285 

His  grandeur  as  displayed  in  the  Milky  Way  -  -  140,  284 

His  paternal  care  over  all  his  creatures . 141 

His  infinity  and  eternity .  331 — 334 

His  omnipotence .  288,  343 

His  wisdom  and  benevolence  -  234 — 238,  257,  344 

The  exercise  of  his  wisdom,  &c.  supposes  the  existence  of  sensi¬ 
tive  or  rational  beings . -  236 

His  benevolence  of  a  communicative  nature,  and  constitutes  his 

distinguishing  character .  235,  23" 

His  attributes  not  separable  parts  or  qualities  ...  -  238 

All  his  perfections  are  simultaneously  in  operation  -  238' — 247 

Whether  his  happiness  may  be  increased  -  -  -  •  -  232 

Wherever  his  power  operates,  his  wisdom  and  goodness  are  also 

displayed .  238 — 240 

His  character  could  not  be  vindicated,  were  there  not  a  plurality 

of  worlds . 245 

Creation  demonstrates  his  existence  and  perfections  -  294 — 296 

His  incessant  agency  -  296 

Is  known  only  by  the  manifestation  of  his  perfections  -  -  298 

The  universe  an  exhibition  and  manifestation  of  the  -  -  293 

His  condescension  and  special  superintendence  over  all  worlds  249 
His  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  manifested  in  the  system  of 


comets  - 

Distances  of  the  stars,  how  ascertained 
Huygens’  method  of  determining  the 
Herschel’s  and  Wollaston’s  methods 
Of  the  nearest  stars  - 

Of  61  Cygni,  as  determined  by  Bessel 
Double  stars,  general  appearance  of 

Phenomena  of  v\  Coronae,  £  Herculis  y  Virginis,  &c 
Motions  of,  direct  and  retrograde 
Telescopic  views  of  - 

Particular  description  of  a  variety  of 
Reflections  and  remarks  respecting 
Distances  from  each  other 
Velocity  of  their  motions 
Systems  of  planets  connected  with  them 
Diversity  in  their  periods  of  revolution 
Numbers  of,  and  binary  systems 
Contrast  of  colours  exhibited  by 
Variety  of  aspects  in  the  scenery  of  nature  connectec 
Distance  from  the  earth,  how  it  may  be  determined 
Savary’s  method  of  determining  their  distances 
Dunlop,  Mr.,  his  catalogue  of  double  stars,  &c. 

Dunn,  his  opinion  of  new  and  variable  stars 
# 

Earth’s  annual  motion  proved  by  the  aberration  of  light 
Earth,  whether  comets  may  come  in  contact  with  the 
Egyptians,  their  worship  of  the  host  of  heaven 

Encke’s  comet  described . 

Engravings,  explanations  of  .... 

Equinoctial,  part  of  its  direction  in  the  heavens 

Eternity  of  the  Divine  Mind . 

Existence  of  God  demonstrated  by  creation 

Gambart’s  comet  described — alarms  it  occasioned 

Vol.  VIII.  33 


with 


10 


342—346 

51—61 

-  59 

-  60 

-  58 
61—64 

-  108 
106,  107 

-  108 
-  110 
110—112 
112,  113 

-  114 

-  115 

-  115 

-  116 

-  117 

117 

118 

-  120 
121—123 
,  114,  166 

-  92 

200 

321 

38 

-  305 
378—382 

-  22 

-  232 

-  294 

307,  308 


them 


S86 


INDEX. 


PAaa 

Gauging  the  heavens,  Sir  W.  Herschel’s  mode  of  -  -  -  •  143 
Gemini,  its  position  -  -  -  -  •  .  -  19,  348 

Globes,  celestial,  how  the  stars  should  be  delineated  on  -  -  -  46 

Good,  Dr.  Mason,  his  sentiments  respecting  new  stars  -  82 

Goodness  of  the  Deity  .  -  235,  236,  245,  256,  342 

Goodricke  discovers  the  period  of  Algol .  90 

Grandeur  of  the  sidereal  heavens . .  133 

Gravitation,  laws  of,  may  admit  of  very  large  planets  to  revolve 

around  suns . 

Its  influence  extends  to  the  starry  regions  ... 

Greek  alphabet  -------- 

Groups  of  stars,  description  of . 

Pleiades,  148;  Coma  Berenices,  149  ;  Praesepe,  150  ;  Orion, 

152,  &c. 

Form  interesting  objects  of  contemplation  through  the  telescope 


93—95 
-  108 
-  39 

147—154 


153 


Heat  not  altogether  dependent  on  distance  from  the  sun  - 
“  Heaven  of  heavens,”  what  is  included  in  this  expression 
Heavens,  scenes  of  grandeur  in  the  ... 

View  of  the,  in  every  alternate  month  of  the  year 
Herschel,  Sir  W.,  his  astronomical  labours 
His  opinion  respecting  variable  stars 
His  catalogue  of  double  stars  - 
His  investigation  of  the  motions  of  double  stars 
His  observations  on  the  Milky  Way 
On  the  nebula  in  Orion  .... 

On  the  comet  of  1811  .... 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  his  strictures  on  the  ancient  constellations 
His  catalogue  of  double  stars  - 
His  remarks  on  the  motions  of  double  stars 
His  description  of  the  nebula  of  Orion 
His  illustration  of  the  aberration  of  light  - 
Herschel,  Miss  Caroline 
Hevelius’  catalogue  of  the  stars 

Discovers  a  new  star  in  the  Swan 
Hipparchus,  his  catalogue  of  the  stars 
Discovers  a  new  star 

“  Host  of  heaven,”  what  this  expression  implies 
Humboldt’s  account  of  a  meteoric  shower 
Huygens’  description  of  the  nebula  in  Orion  - 
Hyades,  their  relative  position  - 

Hydra,  its  position . 

Variable  star  in . 


Idea  of  the  universe,  how  acquired 
Illustration  of  the  distance  and  magnitude  of  the  stars 
Infinity  of  the  Deity  ..... 

Influence  of  comets  ..... 

Of  the  moon  . 

Inhabitants  of  other  worlds,  their  organs,  faculties,  &c. 

Make  progress  in  knowledge  - 

Moral  state  of  the . 

Intellectual  beings  inhabit  other  worlds  - 
Immense  number  of,  in  the  universe 
Intellectual  views,  progressive  expansion  of  necessary  to  the 
ness  of  finite  minds 

Isaiah,  xl.  15,  17,  considered  as  implying  a  plurality  of  worlds 


-  330 
253,  293 

98,  100 
347—357 
10,  11 

-  91 

-  102 
102—104 
137—144 

-  181 
-  182 
»  48 
-  102 
•  109 
181,  183 

-  199 
161,  305 

-  37 

-  80 

-  36 

-  75 

-  254 

-  222 

-  179 

-  19 

-  20 
-  88 


-  292 
72—74 

-  231 
323—329 

-  327 
262—273 

-  272 
323—329 

-  264 

-  290 
happi- 

243—245 

250—253 


Job,  his  allusion  to  the  constellations 


-  27 


INDEX, 


887 


Kepler’s  description  of  a  new  star  in  Serpentarius 
"Kingdom  of  God,”  what  the  expression  includes,  and  its  references 
to  a  plurality  of  worlds  - 


PAGE 

-  79 


255,  257,  258 


160,  216 
334,  338 
-  81 

-  54 
58,  196 

200,  201 
266,  268 

-  320 
265,  268 

-  54 
22,  25 
.  168 

-  168 
351,  359 

-  125 


Lambert’s  views  of  the  system  of  the  universe 

His  opinions  respecting  comets  -  330,  333, 

La  Place,  his  opinion  respecting  new  stars 
Latitude  of  a  star,  definition  of  ... 
light,  aberration  of,  (see  Aberration ) 

Motion  and  velocity  of 
For  what  purpose  created  ... 

Of  comets . 

Locomotive  powers  of  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds 
Longitude  of  a  star  defined  .... 

Lyra,  its  position  ...... 

Description  of  the  annular  nebula  in 
Delineation  of  its  principal  stars 

When  it  passes  the  meridian,  and  when  near  the  horizon 
s  Lyrae  a  quadruple  system  ...... 

Magnitude  of  the  stars,  difficulty  of  determining  this  point  -  67,  68 

Apparent  . . 68 

Real  of  certain  stars . 69,  70 

Man,  whether  he  may  ever  traverse  the  spaces  of  the  universe  -  66 

Is  the  object  of  Divine  care  and  beneficence  ...  141,249 

Maupertius,  his  opinion  of  variable  stars . 9«2 

Measures  of  distance .  50,  57,  &c. 

Messier’s  catalogue  of  the  larger  nebulae,  with  descriptions  and  re¬ 
marks  - . 189 — 195 

Meteoric  stones . 218 

Meteoric  showers,  various  descriptions  of  ...  219 — 223 

Their  appearance  at  New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  &c.  in 
November,  1833  -....-  219 — 221 

Delineation  of  their  appearance . 221 

Their  appearance  at  Cumana,  Mocha,  Florida,  &c.  in  1779, 

1799,  &c.  .  222,  223 

Remarkable  circumstance  attending  these  phenomena  -  -  224 

Observations  made  on  them  in  France  in  1836  -  -  -  225 

Dr.  Olmsted’s  deductions  respecting  their  nature  and  origin 

226—228 

Arago’s  opinion  respecting  these  phenomena  ....  229 
Probably  proceed  from  a  celestial  body  -  227 

Delineation  of  the  orbit  of  the  body  whence  they  are  supposed  to 

have  originated  . . -  228 

General  reflections  and  remarks  on  this  subject  ...  229 
Michell’s  opinion  respecting  double  stars  .....  103 
Milky  Way,  particular  description  of  its  position,  phenomena,  &c. 

Constellations  through  which  it  passes  (delineated  in  Plate  V.) 

134,  135 

Its  varied  appearances  --------  135 

Countless  multitude  of  stars  it  contains  ...  136 — 138 

Sir  W.  Herschel’s  observations  on  the  ...  137 — 144 

Number  of  stars  it  may  contain  -  -  -  -  -  -  138 

Distances  of  some  of  the  stars  connected  with  it  -  -  -  139 

Schroeter’s  observations  on  this  zone  .....  140 

Reflections  on  the  scene  it  exhibits  ....  140—142 

Supposed  to  belong  to  the  class  of  nebul®  ....  142 

Position  of  the  solar  system  in  the  •  142 


388 


INDEX. 


Milky  Way,  its  structure  and  form  delineated  - 

Sir  J.  Herschel's  description  of,  in  the  southern  hemisphere 
Supposed  number  of  worlds  in  it 

Moon,  its  influence  on  the  earth . 

Moral  laws  common  to  all  intelligences  - 

Moral  order  in  what  it  consists,  moral  evils,  &c.  ... 

Motion  of  the  new  star  of  1572  ------ 

One  of  the  causes  of  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars 
Motions  complex  in  multiple  stars  -  -  - 

Of  immense  velocity  in  relation  to  double  stars 
Proper  motions  of  the  stars,  when  and  by  whom  observed 

Table  of  proper  motions . 

Of  double  stars,  their  velocity,  &c.  - 
Immense  and  astonishing  motions  in  the  universe 

Multiple  stars . 

Representation  of  a  treble  and  quadruple  system  of  - 

Orbits  of . . 

Reflections  on . . 

List  of,  with  remarks  ...... 


PAGE 

143,  144 

-  147 

.  284 

-  327 
278,  279 

-  277 
.  86 

-  93 

-  127 

-  114 

-  204 
.  203 

-  204 
288,  289 
123—132 
125,  126 
125,  126 

-  129 
129—132 


Nebula  in  Orion,  Huygens’  and  Herschel’s  description  of,  &c. 


179,  181,  287 

Nebula,  general  description  of  the . 158 

Sir  W.  Herschel’s  observations  and  remarks  on  ...  158 
Lambert’s  views  on  this  subject  ...  -  160 

Number  of,  already  discovered . 161 

Their  great  magnitude,  distance,  and  grandeur  -  -  162,  176 

Various  kinds  of,  clusters,  resolvable  nebulae,  &c.  -  -  164,  165 

Views  and  descriptions  of  various  .....  167,  179 

In  the  shape  of  a  dumb-bell,  and  of  a  luminous  ring,  -  169,  170 

Delineations  of  nebulous  stars  ......  171 

Extensive  diffusive  nebulosities  ......  172 

Round,  extended,  brightest  in  the  middle,  &c.  ...  174 

Stellar  -  175 

Planetary,  their  immense  size,  &c.  -  176 — 179 

Irresolvable,  opinions  respecting  -  -  -  -  -185,  186 

Catalogue  of  the  most  remarkable  ....  189 — 195 

Nebular  hypothesis  .......  185 — 189 


Nebulosities  joined  to  nebulae  and  diffusive  nebulosities  -  172 — 174 

Nebulous  matter  in  the  heavens,  various  opinions  respecting,  186 — 188 
Nehemiah,  ix.  6,  considered  as  illustrating  the  population  of  the 


universe .  253 — 255 

New  creations  incessantly  going  forward  throughout  space  -  98,  99 

New  stars,  their  number  and  diversified  phenomena  -  -  74 — 81 

Conjectures  and  opinions  respecting  their  nature  -  -  80 — 83 

Explanations  of  their  probable  nature  and  phenomena,  -  83 — 86 

Reflections  on  this  subject .  83,  86,  87 

Figure  illustrating  the  position  of  one  in  Cassiopeia  -  -  -  77 

Description  of  one  in  Serpentarius . 78 

Untenable  opinions  on  this  subject . 83 

Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  his  opinion  of  new  and  blazing  stars  -  -  -  92 

Nocturnal  scenes  in  other  planets . 270 

November  meteors  particularly  described  ...  219 — 230 


Occultation  of  one  star  by  another . 107 

Occupations  of  Venus  by  the  Moon,  1841  .  377 

Olmsted,  Professor,  his  deductions  respecting  shooting  stars  and  the 

November  meteors  ......  226 — 228 

Opaque  globes  ma-y  exist  of  an  immense  size  -  -  -  95,  215,  216 


INDEX. 


S89 


PAGE 

Orbits  of  double  stars . 108 

Orion,  its  position  in  January,  its  belt,  &c. . 17 

N atural  delineation  of  its  principal  stars  -  -  -  -  -  47 

View  of  a  group  of  stars  in  its  sword  ....  152,  153 
Delineation  ana  description  of  its  nebula  ....  179,  180 

Huygens’  description  of  its  nebula,  the  author’s  observations  on 

179—181 

Sir  W.  and  J.  Herschel’s  descriptions  of  it  ...  181,182 
Supposed  magnitude  of  its  nebula  ------  183 

Whether  liable  to  change  -------  183 

Reflection  and  remarks  in  relation  to  this  object  ...  184 

Oscillating  suns  .  . . 127,  128 

Ovid’s  description  of  the  Milky  Way  ------  134 

Of  the  Pleiades  -  . 148 


Pegasus,  square  of  -  . 23 

Periods  of  double  stars  -  --  --  --  -  106,  107 

Perseus,  its  situation  described  -  --  --  --25 

A  cluster  of  stars  in,  described . 151 

Parallax  annual  of  the  fixed  stars  ------  51 — 61 

Mode  of  finding  it  explained  ------  51—53 

Galileo  and  Hooke’s  modes  of  investigating  it  -  -  -  53 — 55 

Whiston’s  calculations  in  reference  to . 56 

Molyneaux’s  and  Bradley’s  attempts  to  find  it  -  -  -  -  56 

Huygens’,  Wollaston’s,  and  Herschel’s  modes  of  investigation 

59—61 

Bessel’s  determination  of  the  parallax  of  61  Cygni 
Figot’s  observations  and  descriptions  of  variable  stars 
Planets  may  intercept  the  light  of  stars 

Inhabited  by  sensitive  and  intellectual  beings 
Their  inhabitants  furnished  with  visual  organs,  &c. 

Their  immense  size  -  -  -  -  - 

Planetary  system  contrasted  with  the  Milky  Way 
Planetary  Nebulae,  description  of 

Sir  W.  Herschel’s  remarks  on  them 
Their  enormous  magnitude 
Positions  of  some  of  these  bodies 
Planispheres,  how  the  stars  should  be  depicted  on 
Pleiades,  description  of  the 

Telescopic  view  of  this  cluster 
Plurality  of  worlds,  (see  Worlds) 


61—63 
89—91 
93,  94 
262—265 
266—268 
-  281 

-  141 
176—179 

-  276 
177,  288 

-  178 

-  46 
148 

-  381 
230—247 

-  53 

-  150 

-  151 
128 
272 


271, 


Pole  of  the  ecliptic 
Prassepe,  description  of 
Telescopic  view  of 
Problem  of  three  bodies 

Progressive  improvement  of  intellectual  beings 
Psalm  viii.  3,  4,  considered  as  embodying  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality 

of  worlds  .  249,  250 

Psalrr.  ciii.  19  ;  cxlv.  9 — 13  ;  cxiii.  4 — 6  ;  xix.  1 ;  cxlvii.  4,  &c., 
explained  as  illustrative  of  a  plurality  of  worlds, 

255,  256,  258—260 

Ptolemy,  his  catalogue  of  the  stars . 36 


Right  ascension  of  a  heavenly  body  - . 54 

Reflections  on  the  distances  of  the  stars  and  the  immense  spaces  of 

the  universe  . . -64 

On  the  grandeur  of  the  Deity  -  -  -  -  -  -  64,  65 

On  the  immensity  of  creation  -----  284 — 288 

On  the  grandeur  of  the  sidereal  heavens  •  -  -  133 

33* 


390 


INDEX. 


Reflections  on  the  scene  exhibited  by  the  Milky  Way 
On  the  astonishing  motions  in  the  universe 

On  the  nebula  in  Orion . 

Religion  and  science  connected  ..... 
Revelation,  arguments  deduced  from,  for  a  plurality  of 

Robinson,  Professor,  his  reflections  on  new  stars 


PAGE 

140—142 

288—290 

-  184 

-  297 
worlds 

247—261 

-  82 


Savary,  his  method  of  finding  the  distances  of  double  stars  -  -  121 

Difficulty  of  putting  it  in  practice . 122 

Scenes  of  grandeur  in  the  heavens  -  100,  113,  263,  286,  287,  &c. 

Schroeter’s  observations  on  the  Milky  Way . 140 

Description  of  his  large  reflecting  telescope  ....  140 
His  observations  on  the  comets  of  1807  and  1811  -  -  308,  310 

Destruction  of  his  observatory . 313 

Science  and  religion  connected . 297 

Scriptures,  various  passages  of,  illustrated  at  large  -  -  247 — 261 

Predictions  contained  in  the  .......  322 

Scriptural  representations  of  the  immensity  of  Deity  -  -  -  65 

Senses  of  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds  ...  266 — 269 

Sentient  beings  inhabit  other  worlds . 262 

Serpentarius,  its  position  -  -  -  -  .  -  -  -  -23 

Account  of  a  new  star  which  appeared  in  -  78 

Sidereal  science  still  in  its  infancy . 11,12 

Shooting  stars  described . 218 

Beccaria’s  opinion  as  to  their  origin . 219 

Signs  of  the  Zodiac,  origin  of . 28 — 32 

Sirius,  its  brightness  when  viewed  through  large  telescopes,  -  -  208 

Situation  of  man  in  regard  to  the  remote  regions  of  creation  -  -  13 

Solstitial  points  defined  -55 

Somerville,  Mrs.,  on  meteoric  stones . 217 

South,  Sir  James,  his  catalogue  of  double  stars  -  -  -  -  102 

Spiritual  beings . 264 

Spiritual  and  intellectual  economy  -------  274 

Starry  heavens ,  general  appearance  of  the . 14 

Scenes  they  present  to  view . 15 

Seldom  contemplated  by  the  eye  of  reason . 15 

Speculations  and  inquiries  suggested  by  the . 16 

Views  of  particular  portions  of  the . 17 — 28 

Northern  region  of  the,  in  April  and  in  October  -  -  25,  26 

Remarks  on  the  phenomena  of  the  stars  in  the  north  polar 

regions . 26,  27 

Grandeur  of  the . 133 

Stars,  their  division  into  magnitudes . 35 

Their  comparative  light . 35 

Catalogues  of  the . 36,  37 

Mode  of  distinguishing  them  -  -  -  •  -  -  39 

Their  distance,  how  ascertained  -  -  -  -  51 — 61 

Distance  of  the  nearest . ---58 

Distance  of  61  Cygni  illustrated  ......  63 

Aberration  of  their  light . 58,  196 

Reflections  suggested  by  their  distance . 64 

Their  apparent  magnitudes  ------  -  68 

Real  magnitudes  of  some  of  these  bodies  -  -  -  -  70 

Reflections  on  their  amazing  magnitude  -  -  -71,72 

Popular  illustrations  of  their  distances  and  magnitudes  -  72 — 74 
Changes  observable  among  them . 96 — 98 


Double,  description  of  their  phenomena— (see  Systems,  binary ,) 

100—123 


INDEX. 


391 


Stars ,  their  light  greatly  diversified  in  point  of  colour 
Treble ,  list  of,  with  remarks  - 
New,  variable,  and  multiple  -  -  - 

Groups  of . 

Nebulous  ...... 

Their  proper  motions  - 
Their  destination  ..... 

Their  utility  in  reference  to  our  globe 
Arguments  which  prove  that  they  are  suns 
Shine  by  their  own  native  light 
Constitute  the  principal  part  of  the  universe 
Direct  indication  that  they  are  suns  - 
Small  stars  which  are  supposed  to  shine  with  reflectet 

Sun,  his  amazing  size . 

Suns  may  revolve  around  large  planets 

Revolve  around  suns  .... 


light 


PAGE 
-  120 
129—132 
74,  87,  123 
147—154 

-  171 
201—205 
205—214 

-  205,  206 
208—214 

-  208 
-  208 
-  211 
-  212 
-  282 

-  '  -  95 

-  112,  113 


Oscillating  suns  . . 128 

Systems,  binary ,  particular  description  of  ...  100 — 123 

Representation  of . 119 

Treble,  delineation  and  description  of  ....  124,  125 

Quadruple,  diagram  of . 126 

Swan,  variable  star  in  this  constellation . 89 


Taurus,  its  position  in  the  heavens . 18 

Telescope,  its  utility  and  the  purposes  for  which  it  serves  -  -  10 

Enlarges  the  apparent  size  of  the  moon  and  planets  -  -  73 

Why  it  produces  so  little  effect  on  the  fixed  stars  -  -  73,  74 

Multitude  of  stars  which  it  brings  to  view  ...  137,  138 
Description  of  Schroeter’s  large  reflector  ....  140 

“  Throne  of  the  Deity,”  what  it  implies  -  -  -  255 

Tycho,  his  description  of  a  new  star  in  Cassiopeia  -  -  -  -  76 

Ulug  Beigh’s  catalogue  of  the  stars  -.-.---36 

Unknown  celestial  bodies  - . 214 — 217 

Universe,  its  immensity  . 155,  157,  213,  287 

Summary  view  of  the  grand  and  multifarious  objects  it  contains 

281—299 

Is  boundless  and  unsearchable .  286,  287 

Multitude  of  intellectual  beings  in  it  .....  290 
An  approximate  conception  of  its  magnitude,  how  obtained  -  292 
Ursa  Major  and  Minor . -24 


Variable  stars,  their  number,  phenomena,  periods,  &c.  -  -  87 — 100 

Catalogue  of  -  --  --  --  --  -  91 

Star  in  the  Whale  -  -...-.--87 

In  Hydra . 88 

In  Antinoi  . . 91 

Conjectures  respecting  the  cause  of  their  phenomena,  -  92,  93 

Probable  causes  of  such  phenomena  illustrated  93 — 96,  211,  216 

Variety  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  the  works  of  the  Almighty 

100,  147,  156 

Necessary  to  the  happiness  of  finite  beings  ....  242 
Vince,  Professor,  his  conjectures  respecting  new  stars  -  -  -  82 

Visual  organs  of  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds  -  -  266 — 268 

Webb,  Rev.  Mr.,  his  observations  on  the  comet  of  1835  -  -  315,  316 

His  MS.  treatise  on  comets  recommended  ....  345 

Whale  variable  star  in  this  constellation  ------  87 

Wisdom  of  the  Deity  ...  -  -  234,  342,  &c. 


3  92 


INDEX. 


Wollaston  his  photometrical  experinv  •\ts 
Worlds,  Plurality  of,  proved  and  Jlustrated 

From  the  infinity  and  eternity  of  the  Divine  Mind 
From  the  wisdom  and  benevolence  of  the  Deity 
From  the  unity  of  his  designs  and  operations 
From  the  absurdity  involved  in  the  contrary  opinion 
Exhibits  a  magnificent  idea  of  the  Divine  Character 
Summary  of  arguments  on  this  subject 
Arguments  for,  derived  from  revelation 
Physical  state  of  the  inhabitants  of  other  worlds 

Their  moral  state . 

Worlds,  supposed  number  of,  in  the  Milky  Way 
In  the  visible  universe . 


PAGE 

-  59,  70 

230— 247 

231— 234 
234—237 
238—240 
240—246 

-  237 

-  246 
247—261 
262—275 
276—280 

-  284 

-  2S5 


Zodiac,  its  invention . 28 

Mode  in  which  the  ancients  determined  its  divisions  -  -  29,  30 

Signs  of,  origin  of  their  names . 30 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


PLATE  PAGE 

I.  Represents  a  portion  of  the  southern  part  of  the  heavens  about 

the  middle  of  January  -------  20 

II.  Exhibits  a  portion  of  the  constellations  as  seen  about  the  1st 

of  September . 22 

III.  The  north  circumpolar  stars . 27 

IV.  The  south  circumpolar  stars  ------  378 

V.  Miniature  n.  ap  of  the  heavens  on  Mercator’s  projection  with 

the  Milky  Way  ........  166 


FIGURE 

4.  Represents  the  boundary  of  Orion,  and  its  relation  to  other  con¬ 

stellations  . 

5,  6.  Illustrate  the  manner  of  ascertaining  the  annual  parallax 

7.  Illustrates  the  aberration  of  the  stars . 

8.  Mode  of  finding  the  annual  parallax  by  double  stars 

9.  Cassiopeia,  with  the  position  of  the  new  star  of  1572 

10.  Illustrative  of  the  phenomena  of  new  stars  - 

11.  Illustrative  of  the  phenomena  of  variable  stars  -  -  -  - 

12.  Illustrating  the  cause  of  the  periodical  changes  of  stars 

13.  Phenomenon  of  double  stars . - 

14.  Revolution  of  the  double  star  Castor . 

15 — 31.  Telescopic  views  of  double  stars  .  ...  . 

32.  Representation  of  a  binary  system  . 

33.  Illustration  of  a  mode  of  finding  the  distance  of  double  stars 

34.  Representation  of  a  treble  system/  . 

35.  - - of  a  quadruple  system . 

36.  Small  stars  of  which  it  is  composed . 

37.  Representation  of  a  system  of  an  oscillating  sun  - 

38.  Projection  of  the  Milky  Way  - 

39.  Explanatory  of  the  position  of  the  sun  in  the  Milky  Way  • 

40.  Telescopic  view  of  the  stars  in  Praesepe  -  -  -  -  - 

41. *  Telescopic  view  of  the  stars  in  Orion’s  sword  -  -  -  - 

41.  A  globular  cluster  of  stars  in  Hercules  ------ 

42.  An  irregular  cluster  in  Daradus . 

43.  An  elliptical  nebula  in  Andromeda . 

44.  A  different  kind  of  elliptical  nebula  ------ 

45.  An  annular  nebula  in  Lyra  ------- 

46.  Ditto  in  Cygnus . 

46. *  Principal  stars  in  Lyra,  shewing  the  position  of  an  annular  nebula 

47.  Nebula  in  the  shape  of  a  dumb  bell  ------ 

48.  Nebulous  ring,  with  a  round  nucleus . 

49 — 58.  Represents  nebulous  stars,  or  nebulae  connected  with  small 

stars  . 

59.  Represents  an  extensive  diffusive  nebulosity  - 
60 — 62.  Various  kinds  of  nebulosities  joined  to  nebulae  - 
63 — 65.  Nebulae  brighter  in  more  than  one  place  - 

66.  Nebulae  which  are  suddenly  much  brighter  in  the  middle 

67.  Round  and  extended  nebulae,  that  shew  the  progress  of  conden¬ 

sation  -  - . 


47 

52 

57 

60 

78 

85 

94 

96 

103 

105 

110 

119 

122 

125 

126 
ib. 
127 
143 
145 

151 

152 
166 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

168 

169 

ib. 

ib. 

173 

ib. 

ib. 

175 


Us 


393 


394 


LIST  OF  ENGRAVINGS. 


FICURS  FA9K 


68.  Nebulae  of  an  almost  uniform  light  -  -  -  -  -  -175 

69.  The  four  figures  towards  the  right  are  specimens  of  planetary 

nebulae .  -  ib. 

70.  Stellar  nebulae . ib. 

71.  Views  of  the  gradual  condensation  of  the  nebulous  substance  -  ib. 

72.  Nebula  in  Orion,  as  seen  in  1740  ......  180 

73.  Ditto,  as  seen  by  Sir  W.  Herschel  in  1811  -  -  -  -  ib. 

74.  Illustration  of  the  aberration  of  light . 198 

75.  Explanatory  of  aberration . 199 

76.  Representation  of  a  meteoric  shower  -  -  -  -  221 

Orbit  of  the  body  whence  the  November  meteors  are  supposed 

to  be  derived  -  228 

78,  79.  Two  views  of  the  comet  of  1807,  by  Schroeter  and  Bessel  -  311 

80.  View  of  a  comet  which  appeared  in  1661 . ib. 

81.  View  of  a  comet  with  a  bent  tail . ib. 

82.  Orbit  of  Halley’s  comet  -  335 

83.  Portion  of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1680  -  -  -  -  -336 

84.  Orbit  of  the  comet  of  1832,  with  the  relative  position  of  the  orbit 

of  the  earth . 337 

85.  Telescopic  view  of  the  Pleiades . 380 

86.  The  comet  of )  744,  with  its  tail  divided  into  six  branches  -  -  381 


THE  END. 


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